Encoding method Publication name Data type and size Random access Logic density Date DOI Journal Country Organization Encoding method type (l,e) - constrained encoder Capacity-approaching constrained codes with error correction for DNA-based data storage. 2021 10.1109/TIT.2021.3066430 IEEE Transactions on Information Theory Singapore Singapore University of Technology and Design Others 15-ary Huffman In vivo processing of digital information molecularly with targeted specificity and robust reliability Text, codebook (56 bytes), image (376 bytes) 3.3 bits/nt, 4.0 bits/nt 2022 10.1126/sciadv.abo7415 Science Advances China Tsinghua University Others ASCII Processing DNA Storage through Programmable Assembly in a Droplet-Based Fluidics System Text (92 bytes), movie clip (12 KB) Yes 1.33 bits/nt 2023 10.1002/advs.202303197 Advenced Science Korea Incheon National University Others Base64 Information stored in nanoscale Encoding data in a single DNA strand with Base64 Text (185 bytes) 1.77 bits/nt 2020 10.1016/j.nantod.2020.100871 Nano Today China Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry Base64 Base64 Assembly of Reusable DNA Blocks for Data Storage Using the Principle of Movable Type Printing Text, image No 2023 10.1021/acsami.3c01860 ACS Appl Mater Interfaces China Southeast University Base64 Base64 In vivo processing of digital information molecularly with targeted specificity and robust reliability Text, codebook (56 bytes), image (376 bytes) 3.3 bits/nt, 4.0 bits/nt 2022 10.1126/sciadv.abo7415 Science Advances China Tsinghua University Base64 Bite-base Next-Generation Digital Information Storage in DNA Html (0.66 MB) No 0.6 bits/nt 2012 10.1126/science.1226355 Science USA Harvard Medical School Bite-base Bite-base Electrochemical DNA synthesis and sequencing on a single electrode with scalability for integrated data storage Text (27 bytes) 2021 10.1126/sciadv.abk0100 Science Advances China Southeast University Bite-base Bitmap image encoding Metastable hybridization-based DNA information storage to allow rapid and permanent erasure 8 bitmap image files 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-18842-6 Nature Communications USA Rice University Others BMVO Minimum Free Energy Coding for DNA Storage 2021 10.1109/TNB.2021.3056351 IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience China Dalian University Others BO-DNA BO-DNA: Biologically optimized encoding model for a highly-reliable DNA data storage Medical images (PNG, GIF, JPEG, TIFF), MP3, TXT, MP4 1.77bit/nt 2023 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107404 Computers in Biology and Medicine China Chinese Academy of Sciences Others Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) Mobile and Self-Sustained Data Storage in an Extremophile Genomic DNA Text (5.56 KB) No 0.886 bits/nt, 1.552 bits/nt 2023 10.1002/advs.202206201 Advenced Science China Peking University Others Chamaeleo coding A self-contained and self-explanatory DNA storage system 7z (194 KB), ZIP (87 KB) Yes 2021 10.1038/s41598-021-97570-3 Scientific Reports China Chinese Academy of Sciences Others CLGBO CLGBO: An Algorithm for Constructing Highly Robust Coding Sets for DNA Storage 2021 10.3389/fgene.2021.644945 Frontiers in Genetics China Dalian University Others Code book A Hierarchical Error Correction Strategy for Text DNA Storage Text (324 KB) 1.06 bits/base 2021 10.1007/s12539-021-00476-x Interdisciplinary Sciences-Computational Life Sciences China Guangzhou University Others Concatenated codes Random access in large-scale DNA data storage pdf, mp3, gif, compressed source code, mp4, jpg, txt (200.2 MB) Yes 0.81 bits/nt 2018 10.1038/nbt.4079 Nature Biotechnology USA Microsoft Concatenated codes Concatenated codes Demonstration of End-to-End Automation of DNA Data Storage Text (5 bytes) 2019 10.1038/s41598-019-41228-8 Scientific Reports USA University of Washington Concatenated codes Concatenated codes Probing the physical limits of reliable DNA data retrieval digital data (0.1 KB, 1.7 KB, 18 KB) Yes 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-14319-8 Nature Communications USA University of Washington Concatenated codes Concatenated codes Scaling DNA data storage with nanoscale electrode wells Text (40 bits) 2021 10.1126/sciadv.abi6714 Science Advances USA Microsoft Concatenated codes Concatenated codes Integrating DNA Encapsulates and Digital Microfluidics for Automated Data Storage in DNA Image (115.394 bytes) 0.81 bits/nt 2022 10.1002/smll.202107381 Small Methods Germany Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Concatenated codes Concatenated codes Information decay and enzymatic information recovery for DNA data storage Image (115,394 bytes) 2022 10.1038/s42003-022-04062-9 Communications Biology Germany Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Concatenated codes Constrained coding Portable and Error-Free DNA-Based Data Storage JPEG (10,894 bytes) Yes 0.85 bits/nt 2017 10.1038/s41598-017-05188-1 Scientific Reports USA University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Constrained coding Constrained coding DNA assembly for nanopore data storage readout Shuttle.jpg (113 KB), Apollo.jpg (1,520 KB), Vitruvian.jpg (132 KB), 365-Dishes.txt (32 KB) Yes 2019 10.1038/s41467-019-10978-4 Nature Communications USA University of Washington Constrained coding Constrained coding Adaptive coding for DNA storage with high storage density and low coverage Compressed jifi,MP3, TXT, JPG (480 KB); PDF (83.3 KB) Yes 1.29 bits/nt, 1.22 bits/nt 2022 10.1038/s41540-022-00233-w NPJ Syst Biol Appl China Dalian University Constrained coding Constrained quaternary coding Properties and Constructions of Constrained Codes for DNA-Based Data Storage 2020 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2980036 IEEE Access USA Turing Machines Inc. Constrained coding Constrained WMU code Weakly mutually uncorrelated codes with maximum run length constraint for DNA storage No 2023 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107439 Computers in Biology and Medicine Korea University of Ulsan Constrained coding Content‑based barcodes (CBBs) encoding Content-based filter queries on DNA data storage systems Yes 2023 10.1038/s41598-023-34160-5 Scientific Reports Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Others Converter of digital information and genetic code Toward highly effective loading of DNA in hydrogels for high-density and long-term information storage Text No 2023 10.1126/sciadv.adg9933 Science Advences China Southeastern University Others Damping Multi-Verse Optimizer (DMVO) algorithm Designing Uncorrelated Address Constrain for DNA Storage by DMVO Algorithm 2022 10.1109/TCBB.2020.3011582 IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics China Dalian University Others Derrick Improving error-correcting capability in DNA digital storage via soft-decision decoding No 1.56 bits/nt 2024 10.1093/nsr/nwad229 National Science Review China Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Others DMOS encoder Digital data storage on DNA tape using CRISPR base editors Text 0.014 bits/nt 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-42223-4 Nature Communications USA NCSU Others DNA palette code DNA palette code for time-series archival data storage MRI (11.28 MB) 2.39 bits/nt 2024 10.1093/nsr/nwae321 National Science Review China Tianjin University Others DNA prefix-synchronized codes A Rewritable, Random-Access DNA-Based Storage System Text (17 KB) Yes 4.3 bits/nt 2015 10.1038/srep14138 Scientific Reports USA University of Illinois Others DNA shift algorithm Towards Chinese Text and DNA shift encoding scheme based on biomass plasmid storage TXT (0.002MB, 20,463 bytes (simulation)) 3.01 bits/nt, 3.42 bits/nt (simulation) 2023 10.3389/fbinf.2023.1276934 Front Bioinform China Guangzhou University Others DNA-Aeon DNA-Aeon provides flexible arithmetic coding for constraint adherence and error correction in DNA storage Text (4.8 KB), PNG (29.9 KB), JPEG (47.1 KB ) 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-36297-3 Nature Communications Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Others DNA-Crypt Advancing DNA Steganography with Incorporation of Randomness 2020 10.1002/cbic.202000149 Chembiochem Germany Technische Universität Dresden Others DNA-GB2312 code table Towards Chinese Text and DNA shift encoding scheme based on biomass plasmid storage TXT (0.002MB, 20,463 bytes (simulation)) 3.01 bits/nt, 3.42 bits/nt (simulation) 2023 10.3389/fbinf.2023.1276934 Front Bioinform China Guangzhou University Others DNA-LC Multiple errors correction for position-limited DNA sequences with GC balance and no homopolymer for DNA-based data storage 2023 10.1093/bib/bbac484 Brief Bioinform China Tianjin University Others DNA-QLC DNA-QLC: an efficient and reliable image encoding scheme for DNA storage JPG (95.2 KB) No 2.90 bits/nt 2024 10.1186/s12864-024-10178-5 BMC Genomics China Dalian University Others DRRC A dual-rule encoding DNA storage system using chaotic mapping to control GC content PDF (876,960 bytes) No 1.352 bits/nt 2024 10.1093/bioinformatics/btae113 Bioinformatics China Zhengzhou University of Light Industry Others EORS Combinatorial constraint coding based on the EORS algorithm in DNA storage 2021 10.1371/journal.pone.0255376 PLoS One China Hulunbeier Vocational Technical College Others Explorer Explorer: efficient DNA coding by De Bruijn graph toward arbitrary local and global biochemical constraints 2024 10.1093/bib/bbae363 Briefings in Bioinformatics China Tianjin University Others Fountain codes Adaptive coding for DNA storage with high storage density and low coverage Compressed jifi,MP3, TXT, JPG (480 KB); PDF (83.3 KB) Yes 1.29 bits/nt, 1.22 bits/nt 2022 10.1038/s41540-022-00233-w NPJ Syst Biol Appl China Dalian University Fountain codes Fountain codes DNA Fountain enables a robust and efficient storage architecture Tar.gz (2.14 MB): Text (62 bytes), iso (1.4 MB), image (53 KB), PDF (343 KB), video (523 KB), malware (42 KB) No 1.57 bits/nt 2017 10.1126/science.aaj2038 Science USA Columbia University in the City of New York Fountain codes Fountain codes A DNA-of-things storage architecture to create materials with embedded memory Video (1.4 MB) 2019 10.1038/s41587-019-0356-z Nature biotechnology Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Fountain codes Fountain codes Data storage in DNA with fewer synthesis cycles using composite DNA letters Text (6.42 MB) 1.57 bits/nt; 1.76 bits/nt; 1.96 bits/nt 2019 10.1038/s41587-019-0240-x Nature Biotechnology Israel The Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya Fountain codes Fountain codes An alternative approach to nucleic acid memory Text 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-22277-y Nature Communications USA Boise State University Fountain codes Fountain codes Robust data storage in DNA by de Bruijn graph-based de novo strand assembly ZIP (6.8 MB) No 1.30 bits/nt 2022 10.1038/s41467-022-33046-w Nature Communications China Tianjin University Fountain codes Fountain codes DeSP: a systematic DNA storage error simulation pipeline Compressed image, image 2022 10.1186/s12859-022-04723-w BMC Bioinformatics China Tsinghua University Fountain codes Fountain codes Sustainable DNA Data Storage on Cellulose Paper JPG (57.9 KB), JPG (11.3 KB), GIF (1.38 KB), TXT (26 B) No 2023 10.1002/smtd.202201610 Small Methods China Tianjin University Fountain codes Fountain codes Metal-Organic Frameworks in Microfluidics Enable Fast Encapsulation/Extraction of DNA for Automated and Integrated Data Storage PDF (32 KB), image (24 KB) 2023 10.1021/acsnano.2c11241 ACS Nano China Southern University of Science and Technology Fountain codes Fountain codes Data recovery methods for DNA storage based on fountain codes Text (4.8 KB), BMP image, ZIP No 2024 10.1016/j.csbj.2024.04.048 Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal Germany University of Marburg Fountain codes Fountain codes (LT) Integrated Microfluidic DNA Storage Platform with Automated Sample Handling and Physical Data Partitioning MP3 (39,400 bytes), TXT (119 bytes, 77bytes) 2022 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02667 Analytical Chemistry China Southern University of Science and Technology Fountain codes Fountain codes (LT) Iterative Soft Decoding Algorithm for DNA Storage Using Quality Score and Redecoding Image (513.6 KB) No 2024 10.1109/TNB.2023.3284406 IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience Korea Seoul National University Fountain codes Fountain codes (LT) NOREC4DNA: using near-optimal rateless erasure codes for DNA storage JPG (72 KB), Text (34 KB) 2021 10.1186/s12859-021-04318-x BMC Bioinformatics Germany University of Marburg Fountain codes Fountain codes (Online) NOREC4DNA: using near-optimal rateless erasure codes for DNA storage JPG (72 KB), Text (34 KB) 2021 10.1186/s12859-021-04318-x BMC Bioinformatics Germany University of Marburg Fountain codes Fountain codes (Raptor) NOREC4DNA: using near-optimal rateless erasure codes for DNA storage JPG (72 KB), Text (34 KB) 2021 10.1186/s12859-021-04318-x BMC Bioinformatics Germany University of Marburg Fountain codes Fountain codes (RaptorQ) Content-based filter queries on DNA data storage systems Yes 2023 10.1038/s41598-023-34160-5 Scientific Reports Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Fountain codes Fountain codes (RQPAP) High-scale random access on DNA storage systems Yes 2022 10.1093/nargab/lqab126 NAR Genom Bioinform Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Fountain codes Frequency matrix game graph (FMG) coding FMG: An observable DNA storage coding method based on frequency matrix game graphs 2022 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2022.106269 Computers in Biology and Medicine China Dalian University Of Technology Others Fully connected neural network encoder Molecular-level similarity search brings computing to DNA data storage 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-24991-z Nature Communications USA University of Washington Others Galois field and base triplet association method A self-contained and self-explanatory DNA storage system 7z (194 KB), ZIP (87 KB) Yes 2021 10.1038/s41598-021-97570-3 Scientific Reports China Chinese Academy of Sciences Galois field and base triplet association method Galois field and base triplet association method Robust Chemical Preservation of Digital Information on DNA in Silica with Error-Correcting Codes Text (83 KB) No 0.86 bits/nt 2015 10.1002/anie.201411378 Angewandte Chemie International Edition Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Galois field and base triplet association method Galois field and base triplet association method High information capacity DNA-based data storage with augmented encoding characters using degenerate bases Text (854 bytes), image (135,393 bytes) No 3.37 bits/character; 2 bits/character 2019 10.1038/s41598-019-43105-w Scientific Reports Korea Seoul National University Galois field and base triplet association method Galois field and base triplet association method DNA Micro-Disks for the Management of DNA-Based Data Storage with Index and Write-Once-Read-Many (WORM) Memory Features Image (135 KB, 64 KB, 91 KB, 55KB) Yes 2020 10.1002/adma.202001249 Advenced Materials Korea Seoul National University Galois field and base triplet association method GCNSA GCNSA: DNA storage encoding with a graph convolutional network and self-attention 2023 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106231 iScience China Dalian University Of Technology Others HEDGES HEDGES error-correcting code for DNA storage corrects indels and allows sequence constraints 2020 10.1073/pnas.2004821117 PNAS USA University of Texas System Others Huffman code Towards practical, high-capacity, low-maintenance information storage in synthesized DNA Text, PDF, JPEG, MP3 (0.72 MB) No 0.19 bits/nt 2013 10.1038/nature11875 Nature UK Wellcome Trust Others IAOA Study on DNA Storage Encoding Based IAOA under Innovation Constraints 2023 10.3390/cimb45040233 Current Issues in Molecular Biology China Dalian University Others Inear-time quaternary encoder Correcting a Single Indel/Edit for DNA-Based Data Storage: Linear-Time Encoders and Order-Optimality. 2021 10.1109/TIT.2021.3049627 IEEE Transactions on Information Theory Singapore Singapore University of Technology and Design Others Intermediate binary conding Properties and Constructions of Constrained Codes for DNA-Based Data Storage 2020 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2980036 IEEE Access USA Turing Machines Inc. Others ISOWOA An enhanced whale optimization algorithm for DNA storage encoding 2022 10.3934/mbe.2022659 Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering China Dalian University Others JPEG codec Image storage onto synthetic DNA. Image (0.26 MB) 1.71 bits/nt (with compression), 1.31 bits/nt (raw data) 2021 10.1016/j.image.2021.116331 ScienceDirect France Université Côte d’Azur Others JPEG’s progressive encoding Promiscuous molecules for smarter file operations in DNA-based data storage Image (25.6 KB, 27.9 KB, 30.9 KB, 27.2KB) 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-23669-w Nature Communications USA NCSU Others LCG random encoding Random access DNA memory using Boolean search in an archival file storage system Image Yes 2021 10.1038/s41563-021-01021-3 Nature Materials USA Broad Institute Others LDPC code Reducing cost in DNA-based data storage by sequence analysis-aided soft information decoding of variable-length reads Image (548.83 KB) No 1.61 bits/nt 2023 10.1093/bioinformatics/btad548 Bioinformatics Korea Seoul National University Others Levy Equilibrium Optimizer Levy Equilibrium Optimizer algorithm for the DNA storage code set 2022 10.1371/journal.pone.0277139 PLoS One China Henan University of Engineering Others Matrix chaos game representation (mCGR) Fractal construction of constrained code words for DNA storage systems 2022 10.1093/nar/gkab1209 Nucleic Acids Research Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Others Mixed Error Processing Coding for Arbitrary Length (MEPCAL) Mobile and Self-Sustained Data Storage in an Extremophile Genomic DNA Text (5.56 KB) No 0.886 bits/nt, 1.552 bits/nt 2023 10.1002/advs.202206201 Advenced Science China Peking University Others Modulation encoding A Robust and Efficient DNA Storage Architecture Based on Modulation Encoding and Decoding Text, data set No 1.0 bits/nt 2023 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00629 Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling China Guangzhou University Others MOPE High Net Information Density DNA Data Storage by the MOPE Encoding Algorithm 2023 10.1109/TCBB.2023.3263521 IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics China Dalian University Others Motif encoder Scaling logical density of DNA storage with enzymatically-ligated composite motifs Text No 3.36 bits/nt 2023 10.1038/s41598-023-43172-0 Scientific Reports France EURECOM Others Movable type encoding Cost-Effective DNA Storage System with DNA Movable Type TXT (0.4 KB), JPEG (10.9 KB), MP3 (14.2 KB), MP4 (18.2 KB) 3.2 bits/MT 2024 10.1002/advs.202411354 Advenced Science China China National Center for Bioinformation Others NOL-HHO An Intelligent Optimization Algorithm for Constructing a DNA Storage Code: NOL-HHO 2020 10.3390/ijms21062191 International Journal of Molecular Sciences China Dalian University Others Nonbinary SIDEC code Design of Nonbinary Error Correction Codes With a Maximum Run-Length Constraint to Correct a Single Insertion or Deletion Error for DNA Storage 2021 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3116245 IEEE Access Korea University of Ulsan Others Optimized (OPT) 6-bit encoding table Robust direct digital-to-biological data storage in living cells Text (72 bits) 2021 10.1038/s41589-020-00711-4 Nature Chemical Biology USA Columbia University in the City of New York Others Panda Codec Cell Disk DNA Storage System Capable of Random Reading and Rewriting Text, image Yes 3.39 bits/nt 2024 10.1002/advs.202305921 Advenced Science China Northwestern Polytechnical University Others QRSS-MPA Design of Constraint Coding Sets for Archive DNA Storage 2022 10.1109/TCBB.2021.3127271 IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics China Dalian University Others Quadtree partitioning encoding HD-Code: End-to-End High Density Code for DNA Storage. Text, PDF (KB~MB) No 3.83 bits/nt 2021 10.1109/TNB.2021.3102122 IEEE transactions on nanobioscience China Tianjin University Others Random code (RC) Towards long double-stranded chains and robust DNA-based data storage using the random code system Text (29,390 bits) No 1.78 bits/nt 2023 10.3389/fgene.2023.1179867 Frontiers in Genetics China Guangzhou University Others Random coding Low cost DNA data storage using photolithographic synthesis and advanced information reconstruction and error correction Compressed MusicXML files.ZIP (96.78KB) No 0.94 bits/nt 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-19148-3 Nature Communications Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Others Randomly fragmented encoding Reading and writing digital data in DNA ZIP (176 KB) 2020 10.1038/s41596-019-0244-5 Nature Protocols Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Others RaptorQ-Arithmetic-Base64-RS (RABR) DNA-Based Concatenated Encoding System for High-Reliability and High-Density Data Storage 2022 10.1002/smtd.202101335 Small Methods China Tsinghua University Others RaptorQ-Arithmetic-LZW-RS (RALR) DNA-Based Concatenated Encoding System for High-Reliability and High-Density Data Storage 2022 10.1002/smtd.202101335 Small Methods China Tsinghua University Others RBS RBS: A Rotational Coding Based on Blocking Strategy for DNA Storage TXT (9.05 KB), JPG (147 KB), JPG (40 KB) No 1.85 bits/nt 2023 10.1109/TNB.2023.3254514 IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience China Dalian University Others Recursive formula On Single-Error-Detecting Codes for DNA-Based Data Storage 2021 10.1109/LCOMM.2020.3023826 IEEE Communications Letters Netherlands TU Delft Others Squiggle-based construction of concatenated DNA codes Concatenated Nanopore DNA Codes 2024 10.1109/TNB.2024.3350001 IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience Australia Monash University Others Three-layer encoding An Epigenetics-Inspired DNA-Based Data Storage System Text, Portable bitmap format image (0.73 KB) 2016 10.1002/anie.201605531 Angewandte International Edition Chemie UK University of Cambridge Others Triplet code Rapid Information Retrieval from DNA Storage with Microfluidic Very Large-Scale Integration Platform Image (6,912 bits) No 2024 10.1002/smll.202309867 Small Methods Singapore National University of Singapore Others Trits coding Terminator-free template-independent enzymatic DNA synthesis for digital information storage Text (12 bytes, 7 bytes) No 1.5 bits/nt, 1.0 bits/nt 2019 10.1038/s41467-019-10258-1 Nature Communications USA Harvard Medical School Trits coding Trits coding Photon-directed multiplexed enzymatic DNA synthesis for molecular digital data storage Igital music data (110 bits) 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-18681-5 Nature Communications USA Harvard Medical School Trits coding Two-step encoding Rewritable two-dimensional DNA-based data storage with machine learning reconstruction Image (8,654,400 bits) Yes 3.73 bits/nt (before compression), 1.40 bits/nt (after compression) 2022 10.1038/s41467-022-30140-x Nature Communications USA University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Others Wukong algorithm Storage‐D: A user‐friendly platform that enables practical and personalized DNA data storage PDF (333,360 bits, 462,480 bits, 416,280 bits), Text (575,040 bits) Yes 1.82~1.88 bits/nt 2024 10.1002/imt2.168 iMate China Chinese Academy of Sciences Others XOR based encoding algorithm Encoding scheme for data storage and retrieval on DNA computers Text, graphical representation of data and images. 2020 10.1049/iet-nbt.2020.0157 IET Nanobiotechnology India Shiv Nadar University Others Yin-yang codec Towards practical and robust DNA-based data archiving using the yin–yang codec system Text (926,000 bits), image (795,000), TAR (295,000) 1.95 bits/nt 2022 10.1038/s43588-022-00231-2 Nature Computational Science China BGI Others