Synthesis platform Synthesis method Publication name Single segment length Oligos number Synthesis cost Date DOI Journal Country Organization Synthesis platform type Synthesis method type Agilent inkjet printing technology Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated Microfluidic DNA Storage Platform with Automated Sample Handling and Physical Data Partitioning 140 nt, 100 nt 3,770; 47; 32 2022 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02667 Analytical Chemistry China Southern University of Science and Technology Agilent Material deposition (printing) methods Agilent's Oligo Library Synthesis microarray platform Material deposition (printing) methods Next-Generation Digital Information Storage in DNA 159 nt 54,898 11,650 $/MB 2012 10.1126/science.1226355 Science USA Harvard Medical School Agilent Material deposition (printing) methods Agilent's Oligo Library Synthesis microarray platform Material deposition (printing) methods Towards practical, high-capacity, low-maintenance information storage in synthesized DNA 117 nt 153,335 12,400 $/MB 2013 10.1038/nature11875 Nature UK Wellcome Trust Agilent Material deposition (printing) methods BGI-Gene Material deposition (printing) methods Cell Disk DNA Storage System Capable of Random Reading and Rewriting 3000 bp 2024 10.1002/advs.202305921 Advenced Science China Northwestern Polytechnical University Others Material deposition (printing) methods BioAutomation 50 nmole scale synthesis column containing controlled porosity glass Phosphoramidite chemistry Demonstration of End-to-End Automation of DNA Data Storage 45 nt 1 2019 10.1038/s41598-019-41228-8 Scientific Reports USA University of Washington Others Others CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology A digital twin for DNA data storage based on comprehensive quantification of errors and biases 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-41729-1 Nature Communications Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology Robust Chemical Preservation of Digital Information on DNA in Silica with Error-Correcting Codes 158 nt 4,991 31,250 $/MB 2015 10.1002/anie.201411378 Angewandte Chemie International Edition Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology A DNA-of-things storage architecture to create materials with embedded memory 145 nt, 145 nt 12,000; 300,000 5,500 $/MB 2019 10.1038/s41587-019-0356-z Nature biotechnology Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology Reading and writing digital data in DNA 102 nt 12,472 2020 10.1038/s41596-019-0244-5 Nature Protocols Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology CustomArray B3 Synthesizer Electrochemical microarray technology High information capacity DNA-based data storage with augmented encoding characters using degenerate bases 85 nt, 160 nt 45; 4,503 1,795 $/MB 2019 10.1038/s41598-019-43105-w Scientific Reports Korea Seoul National University CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology CustomArray B3 Synthesizer Electrochemical microarray technology DNA Micro-Disks for the Management of DNA-Based Data Storage with Index and Write-Once-Read-Many (WORM) Memory Features 160 nt, 143 nt, 143 nt, 143 nt 5,299; 5,173; 6,532; 4,355 2020 10.1002/adma.202001249 Advenced Materials Korea Seoul National University CustomArray Electrochemical microarray technology GENEray Mobile and Self-Sustained Data Storage in an Extremophile Genomic DNA 50,540 bp; 28,672 bp 2023 10.1002/advs.202206201 Advenced Science China Peking University Others Material deposition (printing) methods Genscript Material deposition (printing) methods A digital twin for DNA data storage based on comprehensive quantification of errors and biases 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-41729-1 Nature Communications Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Others Material deposition (printing) methods IBA life sciences Advancing DNA Steganography with Incorporation of Randomness 20 nt 2020 10.1002/cbic.202000149 Chembiochem Germany Technische Universität Dresden Others Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Image Encoding Using Multi-Level DNA Barcodes with Nanopore Readout 38 nt 190 2021 10.1002/smll.202100711 Small Nano Micro UK University of Cambridge Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Expanding the Molecular Alphabet of DNA-Based Data Storage Systems with Neural Network Nanopore Readout Processing 40 nt 2022 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c04203 Nano Letters USA University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Scaling logical density of DNA storage with enzymatically-ligated composite motifs 2023 10.1038/s41598-023-43172-0 Scientific Reports France EURECOM Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Processing DNA Storage through Programmable Assembly in a Droplet-Based Fluidics System 200 bp 2023 10.1002/advs.202303197 Advenced Science Korea Incheon National University Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods DNA storage in thermoresponsive microcapsules for repeated random multiplexed data access 110 nt 66,000 2023 10.1038/s41565-023-01377-4 Nature Nanotechnology Netherlands Eindhoven University of Technology Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Digital data storage on DNA tape using CRISPR base editors 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-42223-4 Nature Communications USA NCSU Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Rapid Information Retrieval from DNA Storage with Microfluidic Very Large-Scale Integration Platform 2024 10.1002/smll.202309867 Small Methods Singapore National University of Singapore Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides A Rewritable, Random-Access DNA-Based Storage System 1000 bp 32 242,326 $/MB 2015 10.1038/srep14138 Scientific Reports USA University of Illinois Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides Portable and Error-Free DNA-Based Data Storage 1000 bp 17 244,231 $/MB 2017 10.1038/s41598-017-05188-1 Scientific Reports USA University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides Digital Data Storage Using DNA Nanostructures and Solid-State Nanopores 38 bp, 46 bp 190 2019 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04715 Nano Letters UK University of Cambridge Integrated DNA Technologies Ultramer™ DNA Oligonucleotides Integrated DNA Technologies Random access DNA memory using Boolean search in an archival file storage system 3,270,000 $/GB 2021 10.1038/s41563-021-01021-3 Nature Materials USA Broad Institute Integrated DNA Technologies Others Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Rewritable two-dimensional DNA-based data storage with machine learning reconstruction 196 nt 11,826 2022 10.1038/s41467-022-30140-x Nature Communications USA University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Integrated DNA Technologies Material deposition (printing) methods Macrogen Material deposition (printing) methods Processing DNA Storage through Programmable Assembly in a Droplet-Based Fluidics System 200 bp 2023 10.1002/advs.202303197 Advenced Science Korea Incheon National University Others Material deposition (printing) methods Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Assembly of Reusable DNA Blocks for Data Storage Using the Principle of Movable Type Printing 1,718 $/MB 2023 10.1021/acsami.3c01860 ACS Appl Mater Interfaces China Southeast University Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Cost-Effective DNA Storage System with DNA Movable Type 24 nt, 25 nt 350 122 $/MB 2024 10.1002/advs.202411354 Advenced Science China China National Center for Bioinformation Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Parallel molecular data storage by printing epigenetic bits on DNA 2024 10.1038/s41586-024-08040-5 Nature China Peking University Sangon Biotech Co., Ltd. Material deposition (printing) methods Tsingke Material deposition (printing) methods In vivo processing of digital information molecularly with targeted specificity and robust reliability 128 nt, 140 nt, 748 nt 2022 10.1126/sciadv.abo7415 Science Advances China Tsinghua University Others Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Random access in large-scale DNA data storage 150~154 nt 13,448,372 2018 10.1038/nbt.4079 Nature Biotechnology USA Microsoft Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods A DNA-of-things storage architecture to create materials with embedded memory 145 nt, 145 nt 12,000; 300,000 5,500 $/MB 2019 10.1038/s41587-019-0356-z Nature biotechnology Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Data storage in DNA with fewer synthesis cycles using composite DNA letters 152 nt 174,000; 193,000; 217,000 2019 10.1038/s41587-019-0240-x Nature Biotechnology Israel The Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods High density DNA data storage library via dehydration with digital microfluidic retrieval 175 nt 2,042; 276,000 2019 10.1038/s41467-019-09517-y Nature Communications USA University of Washington Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods DNA assembly for nanopore data storage readout Assemble 150 bp into 5000 bp 111,499 2019 10.1038/s41467-019-10978-4 Nature Communications USA University of Washington Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Quantifying molecular bias in DNA data storage 1,536,168 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-16958-3 Nature Communications USA Microsoft Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Metastable hybridization-based DNA information storage to allow rapid and permanent erasure 120 nt 93,894 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-18842-6 Nature Communications USA Rice University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods HEDGES error-correcting code for DNA storage corrects indels and allows sequence constraints 300 nt 5,865 2020 10.1073/pnas.2004821117 PNAS USA University of Texas System Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Oligo Design with Single Primer Binding Site for High Capacity DNA-Based Data Storage 190 nt 10,750 2020 10.1109/TCBB.2019.2940177 IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics Germany Nanyang Technological University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Image storage onto synthetic DNA. 13,426; 17,712 2021 10.1016/j.image.2021.116331 ScienceDirect France Université Côte d’Azur Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Promiscuous molecules for smarter file operations in DNA-based data storage 160 nt 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-23669-w Nature Communications USA NCSU Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Molecular-level similarity search brings computing to DNA data storage 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-24991-z Nature Communications USA University of Washington Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods An alternative approach to nucleic acid memory 2021 10.1038/s41467-021-22277-y Nature Communications USA Boise State University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Robust data storage in DNA by de Bruijn graph-based de novo strand assembly 200 nt 210,000 2022 10.1038/s41467-022-33046-w Nature Communications China Tianjin University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Towards practical and robust DNA-based data archiving using the yin–yang codec system 200 nt 10,103 2022 10.1038/s43588-022-00231-2 Nature Computational Science China BGI Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Integrating DNA Encapsulates and Digital Microfluidics for Automated Data Storage in DNA 150 nt 7,373 2022 10.1002/smll.202107381 Small Methods Germany Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods DNA storage in thermoresponsive microcapsules for repeated random multiplexed data access 110 nt 66,000 2023 10.1038/s41565-023-01377-4 Nature Nanotechnology Netherlands Eindhoven University of Technology Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Digital data storage on DNA tape using CRISPR base editors 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-42223-4 Nature Communications USA NCSU Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Reducing cost in DNA-based data storage by sequence analysis-aided soft information decoding of variable-length reads 199 nt 18,432 2023 10.1093/bioinformatics/btad548 Bioinformatics Korea Seoul National University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods A Robust and Efficient DNA Storage Architecture Based on Modulation Encoding and Decoding 120 nt, 110 nt 140; 10,000 2023 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00629 Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling China Guangzhou University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Sustainable DNA Data Storage on Cellulose Paper 200 bp 12,000 10−18 $/ base 2023 10.1002/smtd.202201610 Small Methods China Tianjin University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods DNA-Aeon provides flexible arithmetic coding for constraint adherence and error correction in DNA storage 114 nt 294 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-36297-3 Nature Communications Germany GermanyUniversity of Marburg Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Metal-Organic Frameworks in Microfluidics Enable Fast Encapsulation/Extraction of DNA for Automated and Integrated Data Storage 140 nt 3,210; 2,504 2023 10.1021/acsnano.2c11241 ACS Nano China Southern University of Science and Technology Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods A digital twin for DNA data storage based on comprehensive quantification of errors and biases 2023 10.1038/s41467-023-41729-1 Nature Communications Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Improving error-correcting capability in DNA digital storage via soft-decision decoding 300 nt 22,950 2024 10.1093/nsr/nwad229 National Science Review China Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Storage‐D: A user‐friendly platform that enables practical and personalized DNA data storage 200 nt 2024 10.1002/imt2.168 iMate China Chinese Academy of Sciences Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Rapid Information Retrieval from DNA Storage with Microfluidic Very Large-Scale Integration Platform 2024 10.1002/smll.202309867 Small Methods Singapore National University of Singapore Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods DNA palette code for time-series archival data storage 155 nt 255,248 2025 10.1093/nsr/nwae321 National Science Review China Tianjin University Twist Biosciences Material deposition (printing) methods Electrochemical microarray technology Scaling DNA data storage with nanoscale electrode wells 104 nt 4 2021 10.1126/sciadv.abi6714 Science Advances USA Microsoft Electrochemical microarray technology Electrochemically triggered phosphoramidite chemistry on the electrode Electrochemical DNA synthesis and sequencing on a single electrode with scalability for integrated data storage 43 nt 6 2021 10.1126/sciadv.abk0100 Science Advances China Southeast University Others Enzymatic DNA synthesis Terminator-free template-independent enzymatic DNA synthesis for digital information storage 8 nt, 16 nt 12;4 7,010 $/MB 2019 10.1038/s41467-019-10258-1 Nature Communications USA Harvard Medical School Others Light-directed maskless array technology Low cost DNA data storage using photolithographic synthesis and advanced information reconstruction and error correction 60 nt 16,383 530 $/MB 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-19148-3 Nature Communications Switzerland Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich Others Multiplexed enzymatic DNA synthesis method Photon-directed multiplexed enzymatic DNA synthesis for molecular digital data storage 9 nt 12 2020 10.1038/s41467-020-18681-5 Nature Communications USA Harvard Medical School Others