OpenLB
Open Library of Bioscience
Advanced Search
World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA)
Oct, 2024;23 (3): 364-386.

Ethical challenges in contemporary psychiatry: an overview and an appraisal of possible strategies and research needs.

Silvana Galderisi, Paul S Appelbaum, Neeraj Gill, Piers Gooding, Helen Herrman, Antonio Melillo, Keris Myrick, Soumitra Pathare, Martha Savage, George Szmukler, John Torous
Author Information
  1. Silvana Galderisi: University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy.
  2. Paul S Appelbaum: Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA.
  3. Neeraj Gill: School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
  4. Piers Gooding: La Trobe Law School, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
  5. Helen Herrman: Orygen, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
  6. Antonio Melillo: University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy.
  7. Keris Myrick: Division of Digital Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
  8. Soumitra Pathare: Centre for Mental Health Law and Policy, Indian Law Society, Pune, India.
  9. Martha Savage: Victoria University of Wellington, School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Wellington, New Zealand.
  10. George Szmukler: Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK.
  11. John Torous: Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
PMID: 39279422 DOI: 10.1002/wps.21230

Abstract

Psychiatry shares most ethical issues with other branches of medicine, but also faces special challenges. The Code of Ethics of the World Psychiatric Association offers guidance, but many mental health care professionals are unaware of it and the principles it supports. Furthermore, following codes of ethics is not always sufficient to address ethical dilemmas arising from possible clashes among their principles, and from continuing changes in knowledge, culture, attitudes, and socio-economic context. In this paper, we identify topics that pose difficult ethical challenges in contemporary psychiatry; that may have a significant impact on clinical practice, education and research activities; and that may require revision of the profession's codes of ethics. These include: the relationships between human rights and mental health care, research and training; human rights and mental health legislation; digital psychiatry; early intervention in psychiatry; end-of-life decisions by people with mental health conditions; conflicts of interests in clinical practice, training and research; and the role of people with lived experience and family/informal supporters in shaping the agenda of mental health care, policy, research and training. For each topic, we highlight the ethical concerns, suggest strategies to address them, call attention to the risks that these strategies entail, and highlight the gaps to be narrowed by further research. We conclude that, in order to effectively address current ethical challenges in psychiatry, we need to rethink policies, services, training, attitudes, research methods and codes of ethics, with the concurrent input of a range of stakeholders, open minded discussions, new models of care, and an adequate organizational capacity to roll-out the implementation across routine clinical care contexts, training and research.

Keywords

Ethics of psychiatry coercive practices conflicts of interests digital psychiatry early intervention end‐of‐life decisions experts by experience family supporters human rights mental health legislation shared decision‐making

References

Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015 Jan;131(1):21-8 [PMID: 25495023]
J Med Ethics. 2011 Nov;37(11):673-6 [PMID: 21659442]
Soc Sci Med. 2017 Jan;172:153-162 [PMID: 27856120]
Int J Law Psychiatry. 2015 May-Jun;40:70-9 [PMID: 25982965]
Lancet. 2022 Aug 27;400(10353):e3-e7 [PMID: 35934013]
Health Expect. 2020 Apr;23(2):483-495 [PMID: 31858662]
Arch Intern Med. 1994 Sep 12;154(17):1890-901 [PMID: 8074593]
Schizophr Bull. 2015 Jul;41(4):773-5 [PMID: 25904722]
Australas Psychiatry. 2020 Oct;28(5):599 [PMID: 32772705]
Front Psychiatry. 2023 Feb 21;14:1030407 [PMID: 36896344]
JAMA Psychiatry. 2020 Jul 1;77(7):755-765 [PMID: 32159746]
Int J Law Psychiatry. 2017 Sep - Oct;54:90-97 [PMID: 28647294]
Lancet. 2011 Nov 5;378(9803):1664-75 [PMID: 22008426]
J Med Internet Res. 2016 Nov 22;18(11):e309 [PMID: 27876684]
World Psychiatry. 2011 Oct;10(3):229-36 [PMID: 21991284]
Eur Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;27(2):142-6 [PMID: 22130179]
Am J Psychiatry. 2011 May;168(5):460-3 [PMID: 21536700]
Psychiatr Rehabil J. 2020 Jun;43(2):111-120 [PMID: 31355653]
Lancet Psychiatry. 2015 Sep;2(9):844-50 [PMID: 26236004]
JAMA Psychiatry. 2017 May 1;74(5):437-438 [PMID: 28384700]
J Med Ethics. 2004 Oct;30(5):435-9; discussion 439-40 [PMID: 15467071]
J Med Philos. 1993 Jun;18(3):281-95 [PMID: 8366320]
Ir J Psychol Med. 2015 Mar;32(1):71-77 [PMID: 30185279]
BJPsych Open. 2023 Sep 14;9(5):e170 [PMID: 37706294]
J Med Internet Res. 2022 Jun 20;24(6):e37677 [PMID: 35723914]
JAMA Intern Med. 2017 Mar 1;177(3):344-350 [PMID: 28114624]
Psychol Med. 2019 Oct;49(13):2134-2140 [PMID: 31337458]
PLoS One. 2019 Nov 1;14(11):e0224193 [PMID: 31675383]
Eur J Public Health. 2018 Apr 1;28(2):224-230 [PMID: 29165586]
Health Hum Rights. 1994 Fall;1(1):6-23 [PMID: 10395709]
BJPsych Open. 2024 Jan 11;10(1):e26 [PMID: 38205597]
Schizophr Res. 2015 Aug;166(1-3):43-8 [PMID: 26036814]
Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2013 Feb;40(3):470-4 [PMID: 23287995]
Australas Psychiatry. 2023 Jun;31(3):282-291 [PMID: 37022312]
Br J Psychiatry. 2008 Aug;193(2):91-2 [PMID: 18669986]
Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl. 2000;399:24-30 [PMID: 10794022]
Science. 2017 Apr 14;356(6334):183-186 [PMID: 28408601]
J Interpers Violence. 2014 May;29(8):1438-58 [PMID: 24309910]
Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2019 Nov;53(11):1050-1051 [PMID: 31552751]
J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2015 Apr;22(3):171-82 [PMID: 25707898]
Front Psychiatry. 2021 Oct 29;12:763005 [PMID: 34777064]
World Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;17(2):196-209 [PMID: 29856551]
J Med Ethics. 1978 Jun;4(2):71-3 [PMID: 671474]
Sci Eng Ethics. 2019 Dec;25(6):1661-1669 [PMID: 26446768]
JAMA. 2017 May 2;317(17):1741-1742 [PMID: 28464161]
Soc Sci Med. 2005 Jan;60(1):109-18 [PMID: 15482871]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Oct;21(3):393-414 [PMID: 36073709]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2014 Aug;8(3):247-52 [PMID: 23594363]
Schizophr Bull. 2010 Jan;36(1):33-5 [PMID: 19892821]
Br J Psychiatry. 2022 Jan;220(1):10-13 [PMID: 35045892]
BMJ Open. 2022 Jun 24;12(6):e055963 [PMID: 35750457]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Oct;21(3):333-334 [PMID: 36073690]
Schizophr Res. 2021 Dec;238:44-51 [PMID: 34598105]
BMJ. 2020 Dec 9;371:m4234 [PMID: 33298430]
Health Aff (Millwood). 2023 Nov;42(11):1559-1567 [PMID: 37931187]
Psychiatr Serv. 2014 Jul;65(7):853-61 [PMID: 24838535]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2019 Jun;13(3):697-706 [PMID: 30556335]
MD Law Rev. 2004;63(1):20-121 [PMID: 15568252]
Psychol Med. 2022 May;52(7):1201-1207 [PMID: 35132951]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;11(2):104-112 [PMID: 27027848]
Recent Results Cancer Res. 2021;218:67-83 [PMID: 34019163]
Lancet Psychiatry. 2014 Dec;1(7):559-68 [PMID: 26361315]
Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014 Oct;26(5):544-50 [PMID: 25343629]
Acad Psychiatry. 2005 Spring;29(1):40-6 [PMID: 15772403]
World Psychiatry. 2023 Oct;22(3):352-365 [PMID: 37713566]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;21(1):61-76 [PMID: 35015367]
Lancet Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;9(2):137-150 [PMID: 35026139]
World Psychiatry. 2019 Feb;18(1):34-41 [PMID: 30600630]
Lancet. 2005 Mar 19-25;365(9464):1099-104 [PMID: 15781105]
World Psychiatry. 2017 Feb;16(1):50-61 [PMID: 28127931]
Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2020 Jan;141(1):52-59 [PMID: 31520527]
World Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;17(2):145-146 [PMID: 29856553]
Schizophr Res. 2022 Mar;241:94-101 [PMID: 35101839]
Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2015 May;61(3):213-4 [PMID: 25907544]
Indian J Psychol Med. 2022 Jul;44(4):399-404 [PMID: 35949633]
Am J Bioeth. 2003 Summer;3(3):39-46 [PMID: 14594489]
J Law Med Ethics. 2013 Fall;41(3):680-7 [PMID: 24088159]
Schizophr Res. 2013 Oct;150(1):31-5 [PMID: 23773295]
Lancet Digit Health. 2023 Dec;5(12):e925-e932 [PMID: 38000876]
Postgrad Med J. 2002 Nov;78(925):671-3 [PMID: 12496324]
AMA J Ethics. 2016 Jun 01;18(6):633-42 [PMID: 27322997]
Schizophr Res. 2015 Oct;168(1-2):9-15 [PMID: 26314731]
Patient Exp J. 2021;8(1):148-156 [PMID: 35330862]
Eur Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;30(3):388-404 [PMID: 25749390]
World Psychiatry. 2024 Feb;23(1):56-57 [PMID: 38214640]
Eur Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;30(3):405-16 [PMID: 25735810]
PLoS One. 2016 Aug 24;11(8):e0160540 [PMID: 27556929]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2019 Feb;13(1):159-166 [PMID: 30311423]
Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2007 May 9;31(4):791-806 [PMID: 17223241]
Behav Res Ther. 2023 Aug;167:104358 [PMID: 37418857]
World Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;11(1):61-2 [PMID: 22295013]
Ann Intern Med. 2015 Oct 6;163(7):548-53 [PMID: 26436619]
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015 Apr;265(3):189-97 [PMID: 25190351]
JAMA. 2003 Jul 9;290(2):252-5 [PMID: 12851281]
Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 1999 Jun;33(3):328-38 [PMID: 10442788]
Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2010 Nov;260 Suppl 2:S147-51 [PMID: 20936299]
Eur Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;30(3):423-30 [PMID: 25735809]
Perspect Public Health. 2024 Jan;144(1):21-30 [PMID: 35929589]
NPJ Digit Med. 2023 Sep 30;6(1):181 [PMID: 37775522]
Annu Rev Med. 2008;59:187-98 [PMID: 17716024]
Ir J Psychol Med. 2015 Mar;32(1):51-60 [PMID: 31715701]
World Psychiatry. 2017 Jun;16(2):200-206 [PMID: 28498576]
Int J Law Psychiatry. 2019 Sep - Oct;66:101479 [PMID: 31706401]
Front Public Health. 2021 Mar 08;9:641605 [PMID: 33763401]
J Pers Soc Psychol. 2013 Aug;105(2):171-92 [PMID: 23773046]
Psychol Med. 2020 Apr;50(5):705-726 [PMID: 32063250]
JAMA. 2017 May 2;317(17):1721-1722 [PMID: 28464154]
Schizophr Res. 2010 Jul;120(1-3):42-8 [PMID: 20399610]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2013 Aug;7(3):235-7 [PMID: 23879832]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Oct;21(3):419-420 [PMID: 36073703]
Br J Psychiatry. 2019 Jul;215(1):386-387 [PMID: 31196246]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2023 Sep;17(9):929-938 [PMID: 37283500]
Glob Health Sci Pract. 2021 Sep 30;9(3):467-480 [PMID: 34593574]
Psychol Med. 2020 Jun;50(8):1241-1256 [PMID: 32482180]
Bioethics. 2015 Oct;29(8):543-56 [PMID: 25689542]
J Clin Epidemiol. 2014 Nov;67(11):1229-38 [PMID: 25022723]
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Feb 16;2:MR000033 [PMID: 28207928]
Eur Psychiatry. 2020 Apr 01;63(1):e36 [PMID: 33289623]
World Psychiatry. 2011 Jun;10(2):155-9 [PMID: 21633695]
J Clin Oncol. 2015 Jan 1;33(1):100-6 [PMID: 25385736]
BMJ. 2013 Jan 30;346:f264 [PMID: 23372175]
Lancet. 2022 Oct 22;400(10361):1438-1480 [PMID: 36223799]
Health Expect. 2010 Mar;13(1):73-85 [PMID: 19719537]
Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2015 Sep 15;14:25 [PMID: 26379758]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2018 Jun;12(3):513-519 [PMID: 28402028]
J Pediatr Psychol. 2023 Nov 17;: [PMID: 37978854]
JAMA. 2015 Nov 3;314(17):1791-2 [PMID: 26402846]
Schizophr Res. 2023 Feb;252:148-158 [PMID: 36652831]
JMIR Ment Health. 2021 Jun 10;8(6):e24668 [PMID: 34110297]
J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2010 May;21(2 Suppl):32-48 [PMID: 20453375]
JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Apr 5;2(4):e191947 [PMID: 30977850]
Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022 Aug;61:60-70 [PMID: 35810585]
Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2013 Jul;48(7):1033-43 [PMID: 23266662]
BMC Psychiatry. 2019 Sep 5;19(1):273 [PMID: 31488144]
JAMA Health Forum. 2023 Oct 6;4(10):e233648 [PMID: 37889483]
World Psychiatry. 2021 Feb;20(1):75-95 [PMID: 33432766]
Australas Psychiatry. 2023 Jun;31(3):255-257 [PMID: 36752178]
Clin Psychol Rev. 2012 Jun;32(4):280-91 [PMID: 22466509]
Int J Health Policy Manag. 2022 Aug 1;11(8):1274-1285 [PMID: 33812349]
BMC Psychiatry. 2017 Aug 25;17(1):308 [PMID: 28841826]
Ir J Psychol Med. 2019 Sep;36(3):163-167 [PMID: 31524127]
BMC Med Ethics. 2020 Jun 3;21(1):46 [PMID: 32493374]
Psychol Med. 2022 Aug;52(11):2071-2079 [PMID: 33143794]
J Pediatr. 2023 Dec;263:113583 [PMID: 37353146]
Med J Aust. 2022 Feb 7;216(2):87-93 [PMID: 34664282]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2022 Jan;16(1):34-41 [PMID: 33543593]
Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2020 Jul;33(4):375-390 [PMID: 32452944]
Schizophr Res. 2022 Jun;244:55-57 [PMID: 35597133]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2015 Apr;9(2):100-7 [PMID: 23968457]
Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Aug;207(2):130-134 [PMID: 26045348]
World Psychiatry. 2017 Jun;16(2):212-213 [PMID: 28498578]
Psychiatr Serv. 2021 Feb 1;72(2):121 [PMID: 33517690]
Health Policy. 2019 Sep;123(9):851-863 [PMID: 30850148]
J Med Philos. 2006 Dec;31(6):643-54 [PMID: 17162732]
Psychol Med. 2019 Mar;49(4):529-534 [PMID: 30585562]
Health Policy. 2018 May;122(5):509-518 [PMID: 29605526]
BMJ Open. 2022 Mar 4;12(3):e050543 [PMID: 35246415]
BMJ. 2011 May 11;342:d2496 [PMID: 21562003]
Br J Psychiatry. 2013 Nov;203(5):381-6 [PMID: 24029538]
Psychiatry Res. 2015 Aug 30;228(3):808-15 [PMID: 26071897]
World Psychiatry. 2023 Feb;22(1):1-2 [PMID: 36640397]
J Psychiatr Res. 2019 Sep;116:83-87 [PMID: 31212249]
JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2021 Jul 28;9(7):e27343 [PMID: 34319252]
Schizophr Bull. 2021 Oct 21;47(6):1512-1514 [PMID: 34401924]
Sci Eng Ethics. 2021 Jun 7;27(3):37 [PMID: 34097141]
BMJ. 2017 Mar 14;356:j1251 [PMID: 28292970]
Ann Intern Med. 2021 Mar;174(3):353-361 [PMID: 33226858]
Psychother Res. 2008 Jan;18(1):5-14 [PMID: 18815962]
JAMA. 2017 May 2;317(17):1723-1724 [PMID: 28464166]
J Psychiatr Res. 2021 Mar;135:153-173 [PMID: 33486164]
Med Care. 2013 Feb;51(2):199-203 [PMID: 23142772]
Schizophr Bull. 2016 May;42(3):732-43 [PMID: 26591006]
Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Jan;53(1):57-65 [PMID: 21431011]
Front Public Health. 2023 Jan 12;10:1072708 [PMID: 36711334]
Med J Aust. 2022 Oct 17;217(8):388-390 [PMID: 36182662]
Ann Palliat Med. 2021 Mar;10(3):3540-3553 [PMID: 32921084]
Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2019 Mar;180(2):159-171 [PMID: 29633550]
World Psychiatry. 2021 Jun;20(2):200-221 [PMID: 34002494]
Br J Psychiatry. 1982 Aug;141:121-34 [PMID: 7116051]
BMJ Open. 2014 Jul 01;4(7):e004880 [PMID: 24989618]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;21(1):1-2 [PMID: 35015347]
World Psychiatry. 2012 Jun;11(2):123-8 [PMID: 22654945]
Implement Sci. 2016 Aug 08;11:114 [PMID: 27502770]
Clin Psychol Rev. 2017 Aug;56:13-24 [PMID: 28578249]
Med J Aust. 2007 Oct 1;187(S7):S68-70 [PMID: 17908032]
J Med Internet Res. 2022 May 4;24(5):e30405 [PMID: 35507393]
JAMA Netw Open. 2019 Apr 5;2(4):e191929 [PMID: 30977842]
PLoS One. 2013 Apr 29;8(4):e62904 [PMID: 23638164]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;21(1):82-83 [PMID: 35015375]
NPJ Digit Med. 2018;1: [PMID: 31211249]
World Psychiatry. 2023 Jun;22(2):230-231 [PMID: 37159357]
Eur Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;27(2):68-80 [PMID: 22285092]
World Psychiatry. 2019 Jun;18(2):140-141 [PMID: 31059618]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Jun;21(2):168-188 [PMID: 35524616]
Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2019 Jan;53(1):8-10 [PMID: 30404551]
J Clin Epidemiol. 2012 Jul;65(7):705-7 [PMID: 22542359]
Psychiatr Rehabil J. 2004 Spring;27(4):392-401 [PMID: 15222150]
Philos Technol. 2021;34(4):1905-1928 [PMID: 34786325]
BMJ Open. 2017 Mar 20;7(3):e014153 [PMID: 28320795]
J Clin Invest. 2019 Oct 1;129(10):3971-3973 [PMID: 31449057]
Am J Psychiatry. 2011 Aug;168(8):800-5 [PMID: 21498462]
Schizophr Res. 2019 Feb;204:326-333 [PMID: 30121185]
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Mar;69(3):220-9 [PMID: 22393215]
J Health Polit Policy Law. 2022 Dec 1;47(6):815-833 [PMID: 35867550]
Sci Eng Ethics. 2019 Dec;25(6):1671-1677 [PMID: 26446767]
Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 2018 Oct;32(5):695-701 [PMID: 30201197]
Clin Psychol (New York). 2015 Dec 1;22(4):345-365 [PMID: 26709338]
Kennedy Inst Ethics J. 1992 Dec;2(4):309-45 [PMID: 10123320]
Schizophr Res. 2023 May;255:239-245 [PMID: 37028205]
Am J Bioeth. 2023 Nov;23(11):1-6 [PMID: 37930942]
PLoS One. 2023 Jun 30;18(6):e0282040 [PMID: 37390108]
Front Psychiatry. 2019 Sep 11;10:631 [PMID: 31572233]
BMJ Open. 2016 Apr 26;6(4):e010606 [PMID: 27118287]
BMJ Open. 2022 Sep 19;12(9):e063501 [PMID: 36123074]
Science. 2019 Oct 25;366(6464):447-453 [PMID: 31649194]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Oct;21(3):390-391 [PMID: 36073695]
PLoS One. 2017 Apr 13;12(4):e0175493 [PMID: 28406971]
Br J Psychiatry. 2019 Dec;215(6):744 [PMID: 31742500]
World Psychiatry. 2021 Oct;20(3):443-444 [PMID: 34505393]
Am J Bioeth. 2023 Nov;23(11):79-84 [PMID: 37879017]
Lancet Psychiatry. 2016 Feb;3(2):171-8 [PMID: 26851330]
J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021 May;30(2):116-122 [PMID: 33953763]
N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 18;365(7):629-36 [PMID: 21848463]
Clin Psychol Rev. 2013 Jun;33(4):501-11 [PMID: 23500154]
Res Nurs Health. 1994 Apr;17(2):79-88 [PMID: 8127996]
Med Health Care Philos. 2023 Dec;26(4):605-614 [PMID: 37725254]
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 12;4:CD001431 [PMID: 28402085]
Palliat Support Care. 2023 Oct;21(5):871-878 [PMID: 37462416]
Psychol Med. 2021 Jan;51(2):212-218 [PMID: 31657288]
Mol Psychiatry. 2022 Sep;27(9):3670-3678 [PMID: 35665763]
Lancet Digit Health. 2020 Sep;2(9):e444-e446 [PMID: 32838250]
World Psychiatry. 2017 Jun;16(2):146-153 [PMID: 28498575]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2021 Oct;15(5):1092-1103 [PMID: 33047505]
World Psychiatry. 2019 Oct;18(3):247-258 [PMID: 31496097]
BMJ. 2018 Apr 12;361:k1240 [PMID: 29650517]
N Engl J Med. 2007 Nov 1;357(18):1834-40 [PMID: 17978292]
J Acad Ethics. 2023;21(2):269-292 [PMID: 35975128]
World Psychiatry. 2021 Jun;20(2):224-225 [PMID: 34002526]
Front Psychiatry. 2023 Aug 17;14:1244101 [PMID: 37663598]
Soc Sci Med. 2021 Jun;278:113942 [PMID: 33892242]
BMJ. 2021 Nov 3;375:e066576 [PMID: 34732464]
Ment Health Today. 2012 Jan-Feb;:30-3 [PMID: 22479954]
Psychosomatics. 2016 Nov - Dec;57(6):556-565 [PMID: 27590345]
Br J Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;188:504-9 [PMID: 16738339]
Acad Med. 2016 Feb;91(2):242-6 [PMID: 26535868]
Schizophr Res. 2019 Aug;210:39-47 [PMID: 30651204]
Health Hum Rights. 2020 Jun;22(1):69-75 [PMID: 32669790]
World Psychiatry. 2020 Oct;19(3):360-380 [PMID: 32931092]
J Med Internet Res. 2019 May 09;21(5):e13216 [PMID: 31094356]
J Ment Health. 2012 Aug;21(4):395-403 [PMID: 22712756]
Community Ment Health J. 2022 Jul;58(5):835-846 [PMID: 34519947]
World Psychiatry. 2019 Feb;18(1):97-98 [PMID: 30600619]
PLoS One. 2017 Jan 9;12(1):e0168258 [PMID: 28068362]
Australas Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;15(3):237-41 [PMID: 17516188]
Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2017 Mar;63(2):169-174 [PMID: 28088867]
Schizophr Res. 2005 Mar 1;73(2-3):173-84 [PMID: 15653260]
Lancet. 2017 Nov 11;390(10108):2128-2130 [PMID: 29143744]
Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2022 Jan 19;31:e9 [PMID: 35042573]
Early Interv Psychiatry. 2022 May;16(5):561-567 [PMID: 34464507]
World Psychiatry. 2022 Feb;21(1):159-160 [PMID: 35015368]
Journal Article

Word Cloud

Similar Articles

Cited By