OpenLB
Open Library of Bioscience
Advanced Search
Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland)
Nov 01, 2016;9 (4):

pH Dependent Antimicrobial Peptides and Proteins, Their Mechanisms of Action and Potential as Therapeutic Agents.

Erum Malik, Sarah R Dennison, Frederick Harris, David A Phoenix
Author Information
  1. Erum Malik: School of Forensic and Applied Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK. EErum@uclan.ac.uk.
  2. Sarah R Dennison: School of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK. srdennison1@uclan.ac.uk.
  3. Frederick Harris: School of Forensic and Applied Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK. Fharris1@uclan.ac.uk.
  4. David A Phoenix: Office of the Vice Chancellor, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK. phoenixd@lsbu.ac.uk.
PMID: 27809281 DOI: 10.3390/ph9040067

Abstract

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are potent antibiotics of the innate immune system that have been extensively investigated as a potential solution to the global problem of infectious diseases caused by pathogenic microbes. A group of AMPs that are increasingly being reported are those that utilise pH dependent antimicrobial mechanisms, and here we review research into this area. This review shows that these antimicrobial molecules are produced by a diverse spectrum of creatures, including vertebrates and invertebrates, and are primarily cationic, although a number of anionic examples are known. Some of these molecules exhibit high pH optima for their antimicrobial activity but in most cases, these AMPs show activity against microbes that present low pH optima, which reflects the acidic pH generally found at their sites of action, particularly the skin. The modes of action used by these molecules are based on a number of major structure/function relationships, which include metal ion binding, changes to net charge and conformational plasticity, and primarily involve the protonation of histidine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid residues at low pH. The pH dependent activity of pore forming antimicrobial proteins involves mechanisms that generally differ fundamentally to those used by pH dependent AMPs, which can be described by the carpet, toroidal pore and barrel-stave pore models of membrane interaction. A number of pH dependent AMPs and antimicrobial proteins have been developed for medical purposes and have successfully completed clinical trials, including kappacins, LL-37, histatins and lactoferrin, along with a number of their derivatives. Major examples of the therapeutic application of these antimicrobial molecules include wound healing as well as the treatment of multiple cancers and infections due to viruses, bacteria and fungi. In general, these applications involve topical administration, such as the use of mouth washes, cream formulations and hydrogel delivery systems. Nonetheless, many pH dependent AMPs and antimicrobial proteins have yet to be fully characterized and these molecules, as a whole, represent an untapped source of novel biologically active agents that could aid fulfillment of the urgent need for alternatives to conventional antibiotics, helping to avert a return to the pre-antibiotic era.

Keywords

antimicrobial peptides and proteins invertebrates pH dependent antimicrobial activity vertebrates

References

J Biol Chem. 2000 Dec 8;275(49):38417-26 [PMID: 10978343]
J Exp Med. 2000 Nov 6;192(9):1261-72 [PMID: 11067875]
Biochemistry. 2001 May 29;40(21):6398-405 [PMID: 11371202]
Adv Exp Med Biol. 2001;484:71-6 [PMID: 11419008]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2001 Aug;45(8):2309-15 [PMID: 11451690]
Nat Immunol. 2001 Dec;2(12):1133-7 [PMID: 11694882]
J Pept Res. 2001 Dec;58(6):445-56 [PMID: 12005415]
Nature. 2002 May 30;417(6888):552-5 [PMID: 12037568]
Biochemistry. 2002 Jun 18;41(24):7529-39 [PMID: 12056883]
Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002 Jul;15(3):506-26 [PMID: 12097254]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2003 Apr;27(4):291-304 [PMID: 12590963]
Microsc Res Tech. 2003 Apr 15;60(6):552-9 [PMID: 12645003]
J Int Acad Periodontol. 2001 Jul;3(3):61-7 [PMID: 12666943]
Biochem J. 2003 Nov 1;375(Pt 3):737-44 [PMID: 12917014]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2003 Sep 2;1615(1-2):84-92 [PMID: 12948590]
J Exp Med. 1956 May 1;103(5):589-611 [PMID: 13319580]
J Exp Med. 1960 Mar 1;111:323-37 [PMID: 13714581]
Biochemistry. 2003 Sep 30;42(38):11366-72 [PMID: 14503887]
Bioorg Chem. 2003 Dec;31(6):425-36 [PMID: 14613764]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2004 Mar;28(3):191-200 [PMID: 14642886]
Cell Microbiol. 2004 Mar;6(3):269-75 [PMID: 14764110]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Apr;48(4):1242-8 [PMID: 15047526]
FASEB J. 2004 Sep;18(12):1447-9 [PMID: 15247144]
J Pept Res. 2004 Oct;64(4):151-8 [PMID: 15357670]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Oct;48(10):3645-54 [PMID: 15388415]
J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2004 Sep-Oct;51(5):516-21 [PMID: 15537085]
Nat Immunol. 2005 Jan;6(1):57-64 [PMID: 15568027]
Trends Parasitol. 2005 Jan;21(1):5-7 [PMID: 15639732]
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2005 Mar 4;328(1):243-50 [PMID: 15670776]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Jun;49(6):2322-8 [PMID: 15917528]
J Invest Dermatol. 2005 Jul;125(1):108-15 [PMID: 15982310]
Protein Expr Purif. 2006 Feb;45(2):269-74 [PMID: 16125410]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005 Sep;49(9):3889-95 [PMID: 16127067]
Anticancer Drugs. 2005 Nov;16(10):1045-51 [PMID: 16222145]
Cell Mol Life Sci. 2005 Dec;62(24):3067-79 [PMID: 16314929]
J Invest Dermatol. 2006 Feb;126(2):354-65 [PMID: 16374474]
J Exp Biol. 2006 Jan;209(Pt 2):202-26 [PMID: 16391344]
Clin Microbiol Rev. 2006 Apr;19(2):403-34 [PMID: 16614255]
Mol Cells. 2006 Apr 30;21(2):229-36 [PMID: 16682818]
Biochem J. 2006 Jun 1;396(2):201-14 [PMID: 16683912]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006 Sep;1758(9):1184-202 [PMID: 16756942]
JAMA. 2006 Jul 12;296(2):202-11 [PMID: 16835426]
Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2006;19(6):296-302 [PMID: 16864974]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006 Aug;50(8):2608-20 [PMID: 16870749]
Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;306:153-82 [PMID: 16909921]
Amino Acids. 2007 Jul;33(1):19-42 [PMID: 17031473]
Am J Reprod Immunol. 2007 Jan;57(1):81-91 [PMID: 17156194]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007 Mar;1768(3):598-608 [PMID: 17208195]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2007;31(8):749-62 [PMID: 17210178]
Am J Gastroenterol. 2007 May;102(5):951-6 [PMID: 17313499]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2008;32(3):213-26 [PMID: 17628673]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007 Nov;1768(11):2667-80 [PMID: 17655823]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2008;32(3):286-98 [PMID: 17658598]
Infect Immun. 1991 Aug;59(8):2549-54 [PMID: 1855975]
Peptides. 2008 Oct;29(10):1815-9 [PMID: 18585417]
Biochem J. 2008 Nov 15;416(1):65-75 [PMID: 18598239]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008 Oct;1778(10):2308-17 [PMID: 18602889]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2009 Feb;33(2):162-70 [PMID: 18789353]
PLoS Pathog. 2008 Oct;4(10):e1000190 [PMID: 18974864]
Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009 Mar;33(3):230-6 [PMID: 18977641]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009 Aug;1788(8):1620-9 [PMID: 19059199]
Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2009 Feb;24(1):18-24 [PMID: 19121065]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2009 Jun;33(6):740-6 [PMID: 19162067]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009 Aug;1788(8):1639-55 [PMID: 19272309]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2009 Aug;33(8):913-9 [PMID: 19454333]
J Bacteriol. 2009 Aug;191(15):4714-21 [PMID: 19465648]
Science. 2009 Jul 17;325(5938):328-32 [PMID: 19541956]
Curr Opin Microbiol. 2009 Aug;12(4):365-70 [PMID: 19632143]
Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2009;88(9):1031-5 [PMID: 19639462]
Environ Microbiol. 2010 Mar;12(3):557-66 [PMID: 19678829]
Curr Protein Pept Sci. 2009 Dec;10(6):585-606 [PMID: 19751192]
FEBS J. 2009 Oct;276(20):5849-59 [PMID: 19765079]
JAMA. 2009 Oct 7;302(13):1421-8 [PMID: 19809023]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2010 Feb;34(2):203-9 [PMID: 19818806]
J Biol Chem. 2009 Dec 11;284(50):34735-46 [PMID: 19828445]
Chem Biol Drug Des. 2010 Jan;75(1):127-32 [PMID: 19878192]
Korean J Physiol Pharmacol. 2009 Feb;13(1):39-47 [PMID: 19885025]
Nat Prod Rep. 2009 Dec;26(12):1572-84 [PMID: 19936387]
Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2010 Apr;23(2):152-7 [PMID: 20051846]
Gen Physiol Biophys. 2009;28 Spec No Focus:F39-46 [PMID: 20093725]
Mucosal Immunol. 2010 Nov;3(6):602-9 [PMID: 20571488]
Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2010 Sep;36(3):264-6 [PMID: 20627462]
Peptides. 2010 Nov;31(11):1995-2002 [PMID: 20713108]
PLoS Pathog. 2010 Oct 28;6(10):e1001067 [PMID: 21060861]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2011 Mar;35(3):399-408 [PMID: 21108964]
Cell. 2010 Dec 10;143(6):911-23 [PMID: 21145458]
Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011 Jan;9(1):62-75 [PMID: 21164535]
Virulence. 2010 Sep-Oct;1(5):440-64 [PMID: 21178486]
Nature. 2011 Jan 20;469(7330):419-23 [PMID: 21248850]
Curr Drug Targets. 2011 Jun;12(7):967-77 [PMID: 21366520]
Peptides. 2011 May;32(5):881-7 [PMID: 21396418]
FEBS Lett. 2011 Apr 6;585(7):995-1000 [PMID: 21402074]
Int Wound J. 2011 Jun;8(3):268-73 [PMID: 21457463]
Nat Rev Microbiol. 2011 May;9(5):330-43 [PMID: 21464825]
J Pept Sci. 2011 May;17(5):353-7 [PMID: 21465628]
Dis Model Mech. 2011 May;4(3):300-4 [PMID: 21504910]
Nat Prod Rep. 2011 Aug;28(8):1350-8 [PMID: 21617811]
Integr Comp Biol. 2003 Apr;43(2):313-22 [PMID: 21680439]
Virulence. 2011 Sep-Oct;2(5):435-44 [PMID: 21778817]
Med Res Rev. 2012 Nov;32(6):1292-327 [PMID: 21793017]
Peptides. 2011 Sep;32(9):1953-63 [PMID: 21827807]
PLoS One. 2011;6(8):e23140 [PMID: 21858010]
Vet Res. 2011 Sep 02;42:98 [PMID: 21888650]
J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2011 Dec;22(12):2765-72 [PMID: 21901371]
PLoS One. 2011;6(8):e24041 [PMID: 21904604]
Med Res Rev. 2013 Jan;33(1):190-234 [PMID: 21922503]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2012 Mar;36(3):502-20 [PMID: 21978453]
Gut Microbes. 2011 Jul-Aug;2(4):262-6 [PMID: 21983064]
Peptides. 2011 Dec;32(12):2484-7 [PMID: 22015266]
FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2011 Nov;324(1):64-72 [PMID: 22092765]
Nano Rev. 2011;2:null [PMID: 22110868]
Microb Cell Fact. 2011 Dec 02;10:101 [PMID: 22136342]
J Med Chem. 2012 Feb 9;55(3):1296-302 [PMID: 22243686]
Nutrients. 2010 Mar;2(3):290-8 [PMID: 22254021]
J Biol Chem. 2012 Mar 9;287(11):8434-43 [PMID: 22262861]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2012 Sep;1823(9):1434-43 [PMID: 22306005]
FASEB J. 2012 May;26(5):1776-81 [PMID: 22308196]
Nano Lett. 2012 Apr 11;12(4):2165-70 [PMID: 22417133]
J Innate Immun. 2012;4(4):349-60 [PMID: 22455996]
PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(4):e1002625 [PMID: 22496651]
Arch Biochem Biophys. 2012 Jun 15;522(2):100-6 [PMID: 22510364]
Biochem J. 2012 Jul 15;445(2):205-12 [PMID: 22519640]
Arch Microbiol. 2012 Sep;194(9):769-78 [PMID: 22526264]
Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2012;25(4):167-81 [PMID: 22538862]
Ann Dermatol. 2012 May;24(2):126-35 [PMID: 22577261]
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2012 Dec;96(6):1551-60 [PMID: 22581068]
Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13(4):4295-320 [PMID: 22605979]
Clin Chest Med. 2012 Jun;33(2):199-209 [PMID: 22640840]
Dev Comp Immunol. 2012 Sep;38(1):181-6 [PMID: 22677064]
J Appl Microbiol. 2012 Sep;113(3):677-85 [PMID: 22686707]
Curr Med Chem. 2012;19(22):3794-804 [PMID: 22725698]
Nature. 2012 Jul 04;487(7405):109-13 [PMID: 22763554]
Front Immunol. 2012 Jul 23;3:213 [PMID: 22837760]
Gene. 2012 Nov 10;509(2):232-46 [PMID: 22925828]
Mol Biol Rep. 2012 Dec;39(12):10957-70 [PMID: 23065264]
Yeast. 2012 Nov;29(11):459-66 [PMID: 23065811]
Exp Dermatol. 2013 Jan;22(1):1-5 [PMID: 23088757]
Curr Protein Pept Sci. 2012 Nov;13(7):602-10 [PMID: 23116441]
Nat Chem Biol. 2013 Jan;9(1):37-42 [PMID: 23143413]
Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012 Dec;10(12):841-51 [PMID: 23147702]
J Appl Bacteriol. 1979 Dec;47(3):489-503 [PMID: 232101]
Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2012;2012:174-82 [PMID: 23233578]
Arch Oral Biol. 2013 May;58(5):451-8 [PMID: 23352445]
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Mar 19;110(12):4586-91 [PMID: 23426625]
Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2013 May;19(3):251-8 [PMID: 23449384]
Mar Drugs. 2013 Mar 01;11(3):623-42 [PMID: 23455513]
Am J Pathol. 2013 May;182(5):1519-31 [PMID: 23499554]
Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2013 Mar 15;:null [PMID: 23507150]
Int J Pept. 2013;2013:390230 [PMID: 23554820]
Biofouling. 2013;29(4):443-55 [PMID: 23574002]
FEBS J. 2013 Jun;280(12):2842-54 [PMID: 23587102]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013 Jul;57(7):3312-20 [PMID: 23650166]
Nat Biotechnol. 2013 May;31(5):379-82 [PMID: 23657384]
Postgrad Med. 2013 May;125(3):33-46 [PMID: 23748505]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013 Sep;57(9):4314-4321 [PMID: 23796919]
ACS Med Chem Lett. 2013 May 9;4(5):481-485 [PMID: 23814644]
Front Immunol. 2013 Jul 03;4:143 [PMID: 23840194]
Future Microbiol. 2013 Jul;8(7):817-9 [PMID: 23841626]
Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2013 Jul 16;3:26 [PMID: 23875177]
Mar Drugs. 2013 Jul 04;11(7):2328-46 [PMID: 23880927]
Biochemistry. 2013 Sep 3;52(35):6021-9 [PMID: 23895279]
J Pharm Sci. 2013 Oct;102(10):3539-44 [PMID: 23955373]
Chem Biol. 2013 Sep 19;20(9):1168-78 [PMID: 23972939]
ISRN Microbiol. 2013 Aug 01;2013:356451 [PMID: 23984180]
Int J Nanomedicine. 2013;8:3197-207 [PMID: 23986636]
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Oct 1;110(40):15973-8 [PMID: 24043776]
PLoS Pathog. 2013;9(10):e1003616 [PMID: 24146611]
Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2013 Dec;15(6):455-64 [PMID: 24150839]
FEBS J. 2014 Feb;281(3):657-72 [PMID: 24219363]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(2):756-66 [PMID: 24247141]
Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2014 Jan 10;443(2):483-8 [PMID: 24321546]
PLoS One. 2013 Dec 13;8(12):e83268 [PMID: 24349477]
Results Immunol. 2011 Sep 22;1(1):70-5 [PMID: 24371555]
J Cyst Fibros. 2014 Jul;13(4):373-7 [PMID: 24418186]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014 Sep;1838(9):2160-72 [PMID: 24463069]
Prostate. 2014 May;74(6):569-78 [PMID: 24464504]
Curr Med Chem. 2014;21(20):2299-321 [PMID: 24533812]
Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2014 Jul;52:124-9 [PMID: 24560894]
Soft Matter. 2014 Jan 28;10(4):616-26 [PMID: 24652391]
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014 May;98(10):4347-53 [PMID: 24676751]
Future Microbiol. 2014;9(3):343-59 [PMID: 24762308]
Environ Microbiol. 2015 Mar;17(3):699-710 [PMID: 24800728]
Protein Cell. 2014;5(8):631-42 [PMID: 24805306]
Nat Rev Microbiol. 2014 Jun;12(6):426-37 [PMID: 24830471]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014 Aug;58(8):4411-9 [PMID: 24841266]
FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2014 Jul;356(1):20-2 [PMID: 24861483]
Mar Drugs. 2014 Jun 05;12(6):3449-65 [PMID: 24905483]
Trends Mol Med. 2014 Jul;20(7):363-7 [PMID: 24928236]
Wound Repair Regen. 2014 Sep-Oct;22(5):613-21 [PMID: 25041740]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014 Nov;1838(11):2778-87 [PMID: 25058381]
Trends Immunol. 2014 Sep;35(9):443-50 [PMID: 25113635]
Front Immunol. 2014 Aug 11;5:378 [PMID: 25157250]
J Control Release. 2014 Nov 28;194:138-47 [PMID: 25173841]
J Infect Chemother. 2014 Nov;20(11):666-71 [PMID: 25182867]
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2015 Jan;70(1):160-6 [PMID: 25213272]
J Dent Res. 2015 Jan;94(1):201-8 [PMID: 25365968]
Perspect Medicin Chem. 2014 Oct 12;6:73-80 [PMID: 25374459]
Int J Nanomedicine. 2014 Oct 31;9:5055-69 [PMID: 25382976]
Nat Rev Genet. 2015 Jan;16(1):45-56 [PMID: 25404111]
Nutr Rev. 2014 Dec;72(12):763-73 [PMID: 25406879]
Pathogens. 2014 Aug 18;3(3):680-703 [PMID: 25438018]
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014 Dec 30;111(52):18703-8 [PMID: 25512526]
J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2015 Jun;25(6):759-64 [PMID: 25537721]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015 Mar;59(3):1620-6 [PMID: 25547358]
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2015 Jun;99(11):4879-91 [PMID: 25592737]
Int J Med Microbiol. 2015 Feb;305(2):283-6 [PMID: 25596890]
Small. 2015 Jun 3;11(21):2543-54 [PMID: 25626995]
J Pept Sci. 2015 Mar;21(3):178-85 [PMID: 25645747]
J Clin Exp Dent. 2014 Dec 01;6(5):e576-82 [PMID: 25674329]
World J Diabetes. 2015 Feb 15;6(1):37-53 [PMID: 25685277]
Nutrients. 2015 Feb 12;7(2):1217-44 [PMID: 25685987]
Trends Microbiol. 2015 Apr;23(4):185-91 [PMID: 25708933]
Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2015 Mar 23;8(1):123-50 [PMID: 25806720]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Jul;1848(7):1451-61 [PMID: 25839356]
Molecules. 2015 Apr 10;20(4):6319-41 [PMID: 25867823]
J Cyst Fibros. 2015 May;14(3):293-304 [PMID: 25881770]
Small. 2015 Aug 12;11(30):3623-40 [PMID: 25929870]
Prog Lipid Res. 2015 Jul;59:26-37 [PMID: 25936689]
Molecules. 2015 May 26;20(6):9703-31 [PMID: 26016555]
Transgenic Res. 2015 Aug;24(4):605-14 [PMID: 26059245]
Int J Mol Sci. 2015 Jun 08;16(6):12958-85 [PMID: 26062132]
Curr Top Med Chem. 2016;16(1):99-129 [PMID: 26139111]
Curr Top Med Chem. 2016;16(1):25-39 [PMID: 26139112]
Front Oncol. 2015 Jun 30;5:144 [PMID: 26175965]
Biomol Concepts. 2015 Aug;6(4):237-51 [PMID: 26203603]
AMB Express. 2015 Dec;5(1):129 [PMID: 26243173]
J Chem Inf Model. 2015 Oct 26;55(10):2275-87 [PMID: 26332863]
Biopolymers. 2015 Dec;103(12):719-26 [PMID: 26340228]
Biochimie. 2016 Mar;122:151-68 [PMID: 26341472]
Pathog Glob Health. 2015;109(7):309-18 [PMID: 26343252]
J Agric Food Chem. 2015 Oct 28;63(42):9251-9 [PMID: 26444944]
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015 Oct 27;112(43):13155-60 [PMID: 26460016]
Adv Healthc Mater. 2015 Dec 9;4(17):2709-18 [PMID: 26474414]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2016 May;1858(5):995-1003 [PMID: 26522076]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 2016 Mar;1858(3):546-66 [PMID: 26556394]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2015 Nov 23;60(2):881-9 [PMID: 26596951]
Nucleic Acids Res. 2016 Jan 4;44(D1):D1087-93 [PMID: 26602694]
Exp Mol Pathol. 2016 Jun;100(3):363-9 [PMID: 26654795]
J Biol Chem. 2016 Jan 29;291(5):2161-9 [PMID: 26668323]
World J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2016 Feb;32(2):31 [PMID: 26748808]
J Clin Invest. 2016 Mar 1;126(3):879-91 [PMID: 26808501]
ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2016 Mar 2;8(8):5124-36 [PMID: 26863404]
Front Microbiol. 2016 Feb 09;7:53 [PMID: 26903954]
PLoS One. 2016 Feb 26;11(2):e0150196 [PMID: 26918792]
Antioxid Redox Signal. 2016 May 10;24(14):813-36 [PMID: 26981846]
Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2016 Feb;33(1):6-12 [PMID: 26985172]
Antibiotics (Basel). 2015 Jan 15;4(1):62-75 [PMID: 27025615]
Antibiotics (Basel). 2015 Mar 30;4(2):136-59 [PMID: 27025618]
Sci Rep. 2016 Apr 14;6:24482 [PMID: 27075512]
Nat Rev Immunol. 2016 May;16(5):321-34 [PMID: 27087664]
Pharmacol Rep. 2016 Aug;68(4):802-8 [PMID: 27117377]
Biochemistry. 2016 May 31;55(21):2979-91 [PMID: 27145151]
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2016 May 26;371(1695): [PMID: 27160601]
Drug Resist Updat. 2016 May;26:43-57 [PMID: 27180309]
Mol Pharm. 2016 Jul 5;13(7):2318-31 [PMID: 27182713]
J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 Aug;71(8):2200-7 [PMID: 27231279]
Eur Biophys J. 2017 Mar;46(2):121-127 [PMID: 27278924]
Molecules. 2016 Jun 11;21(6): [PMID: 27294909]
Sci Rep. 2016 Jun 23;6:28465 [PMID: 27334357]
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016 Sep 23;60(10):6003-12 [PMID: 27458217]
Saudi Pharm J. 2017 Jan;25(1):25-31 [PMID: 28223859]
J Virol. 1986 Dec;60(3):1068-74 [PMID: 3023659]
Infect Immun. 1988 Mar;56(3):693-8 [PMID: 3125111]
Infect Immun. 1984 Jul;45(1):150-4 [PMID: 6735465]
J Appl Bacteriol. 1993 Nov;75(5):478-84 [PMID: 8300449]
Med Microbiol Immunol. 1993 May;182(2):97-105 [PMID: 8332105]
Annu Rev Immunol. 1993;11:105-28 [PMID: 8476558]
FEBS Lett. 1997 Jan 3;400(2):158-62 [PMID: 9001389]
Infect Immun. 1997 Mar;65(3):1023-31 [PMID: 9038312]
Infect Immun. 1997 Jul;65(7):2898-903 [PMID: 9199465]
Clin Infect Dis. 1997 Nov;25(5):951-68; quiz 969-70 [PMID: 9402338]
Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol. 1997 Nov;118(3):515-21 [PMID: 9467865]
Biophys J. 1998 Jul;75(1):422-7 [PMID: 9649402]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 1998 Oct 14;1388(1):279-83 [PMID: 9774745]
Biochim Biophys Acta. 1998 Dec 8;1429(1):259-64 [PMID: 9920402]
Review Journal Article

Word Cloud

Similar Articles

Cited By