OpenLB
Open Library of Bioscience

The association between metabolic syndrome components and the development of atherosclerosis.

Abstract

References

1. World Health Organization. World health statistics 2016: monitoring health for SDGs sustainable development goals. World Health Organization; 2016.
2. Robbie L, Libby P. Inflammation and atherothrombosis. Ann New Y Acad Sci. 2001;947:167–80. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb03939.x]
3. Eckel RH, Barouch WW, Ershow AG. Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Working Group on the pathophysiology of obesity-associated cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;105:2923–8. [PMID: 12070124]
4. Zaman A, Helft G, Worthley S, Badimon J. The role of plaque rupture and thrombosis in coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis. 2000;149:251–66. [PMID: 10729375]
5. Wissler RW. Development of the atherosclerotic plaque. Hosp Pract. 1973;8:61–72. [DOI: 10.1080/21548331.1973.11706366]
6. Paoletti R, Bolego C, Poli A, Cignarella A. Metabolic syndrome, inflammation and atherosclerosis. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2006;2:145. [PMID: 17319458]
7. Hotamisligil GS. Inflammation and metabolic disorders. Nature. 2006;444:860. [PMID: 17167474]
8. McNeill AM, Rosamond WD, Girman CJ, Golden SH, Schmidt MI, East HE, et al. The metabolic syndrome and 11-year risk of incident cardiovascular disease in the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:385–90. [PMID: 15677797]
9. Malik S, Wong ND, Franklin SS, Kamath TV, L’Italien GJ, Pio JR, et al. Impact of the metabolic syndrome on mortality from coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, and all causes in United States adults. Circulation. 2004;110:1245–50. [PMID: 15326067]
10. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome pandemic. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008;28:629–36. [PMID: 18174459]
11. Grundy SM, Brewer HB Jr, Cleeman JI, Smith SC Jr, Lenfant C. Definition of metabolic syndrome: report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Heart Association conference on scientific issues related to definition. Circulation. 2004;109:433–8. [PMID: 14744958]
12. Roberts CK, Sindhu KK. Oxidative stress and metabolic syndrome. Life Sci. 2009;84:705–12. [PMID: 19281826]
13. Davignon J, Ganz P. Role of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2004;109:III-27–III-32.
14. Betteridge DJ. What is oxidative stress? Metab Clin Exp. 2000;49:3–8. [PMID: 10693912]
15. Sies H. What is oxidative stress? InOxidative stress and vascular disease. p. 1–8. Springer, Boston, MA. 2000.
16. Bandyopadhyay U, Das D, Banerjee RK. Reactive oxygen species: oxidative damage and pathogenesis. Curr Sci. 1999;77:658–66.
17. Pignatelli P, Pulcinelli FM, Lenti L, Gazzaniga PP, Violi F. Hydrogen peroxide is involved in collagen-induced platelet activation. Blood. 1998;91:484–90. [PMID: 9427701]
18. Baynes JW. Role of oxidative stress in development of complications in diabetes. Diabetes. 1991;40:405–12. [PMID: 2010041]
19. Jiang Z-Y, Woollard AC, Wolff SP. Hydrogen peroxide production during experimental protein glycation. FEBS Lett. 1990;268:69–71. [PMID: 2384174]
20. Hogg N, Kalyanaraman B, Joseph J, Struck A, Parthasarathy S. Inhibition of low‐density lipoprotein oxidation by nitric oxide Potential role in atherogenesis. FEBS Lett. 1993;334:170–4. [PMID: 8224243]
21. Tsai EC, Hirsch IB, Brunzell JD, Chait A. Reduced plasma peroxyl radical trapping capacity and increased susceptibility of LDL to oxidation in poorly controlled IDDM. Diabetes. 1994;43:1010–4. [PMID: 8039594]
22. Kawamura M, Heinecke JW, Chait A. Pathophysiological concentrations of glucose promote oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein by a superoxide-dependent pathway. J Clin Investig. 1994;94:771–8. [PMID: 8040332]
23. McCarthy AD, Etcheverry SB, Cortizo AM. Effect of advanced glycation endproducts on the secretion of insulin-like growth factor-I and its binding proteins: role in osteoblast development. Acta Diabetol. 2001;38:113–22. [PMID: 11827431]
24. Baynes JW, Thorpe SR. Role of oxidative stress in diabetic complications. Diabetes. 1999;48:1–2. [PMID: 9892215]
25. Vlassara H. Recent progress in advanced glycation end products and diabetic complications. Diabetes. 1997;46:S19-S. [DOI: 10.2337/diab.46.2.S19]
26. Kempe S, Kestler H, Lasar A, Wirth T. NF-κB controls the global pro-inflammatory response in endothelial cells: evidence for the regulation of a pro-atherogenic program. Nucleic Acids Res. 2005;33:5308–19. [PMID: 16177180]
27. Wu X, Muzny DM, Chi Lee C, Thomas Caskey C. Two independent mutational events in the loss of urate oxidase during hominoid evolution. J Mol Evol. 1992;34:78–84. [PMID: 1556746]
28. Glantzounis G, Tsimoyiannis E, Kappas A, Galaris D. Uric acid and oxidative stress. Curr Pharm Des. 2005;11:4145–51. [PMID: 16375736]
29. Gagliardi AC, Miname MH, Santos RD. Uric acid: a marker of increased cardiovascular risk. Atherosclerosis. 2009;202:11–7. [PMID: 18585721]
30. Alderman M, Aiyer KJ. Uric acid: role in cardiovascular disease and effects of losartan. Curr Med Res Opin. 2004;20:369–79. [PMID: 15025846]
31. Chen L-y, Zhuu W-h, Chen Z-w, Dai H-l, Ren J-j, Chen J-h, et al. Relationship between hyperuricemia and metabolic syndrome. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2007;8:593. [PMID: 17657863]
32. Hozawa A, Folsom AR, Ibrahim H, Nieto FJ, Rosamond WD, Shahar E. Serum uric acid and risk of ischemic stroke: the ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis. 2006;187:401–7. [PMID: 16239005]
33. Alvarez-Lario B, Macarron-Vicente J. Is there anything good in uric acid? QJM Int J Med. 2011;104:1015–24. [DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcr159]
34. Nieto FJ, Iribarren C, Gross MD, Comstock GW, Cutler RG. Uric acid and serum antioxidant capacity: a reaction to atherosclerosis? Atherosclerosis. 2000;148:131–9. [PMID: 10580179]
35. Tsouli SG, Liberopoulos EN, Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG, Elisaf MS. Elevated serum uric acid levels in metabolic syndrome: an active component or an innocent bystander? Metabolism. 2006;55:1293–301. [PMID: 16979398]
36. BAGNATI M, Perugini C, Cristiana C, Bordone R, Albano E, Bellomo G. When and why a water-soluble antioxidant becomes pro-oxidant during copper-induced low-density lipoprotein oxidation: a study using uric acid. Biochemical J. 1999;340:143–52. [DOI: 10.1042/bj3400143]
37. Patterson RA, Horsley ET, Leake DS. Prooxidant and antioxidant properties of human serum ultrafiltrates toward LDL important role of uric acid. J Lipid Res. 2003;44:512–21. [PMID: 12562831]
38. Yoo TW, Sung KC, Shin HS, Kim BJ, Kim BS, Kang JH, et al. Relationship between serum uric acid concentration and insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Circulation J. 2005;69:928–33. [DOI: 10.1253/circj.69.928]
39. Buettner HJ, Mueller C, Gick M, Ferenc M, Allgeier J, Comberg T, et al. The impact of obesity on mortality in UA/non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:1694–701. [PMID: 17576661]
40. Battelli MG, Bolognesi A, Polito L. Pathophysiology of circulating xanthine oxidoreductase: new emerging roles for a multi-tasking enzyme. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1842:1502–17. [PMID: 24882753]
41. Berry CE, Hare JM. Xanthine oxidoreductase and cardiovascular disease: molecular mechanisms and pathophysiological implications. J Physiol. 2004;555:589–606. [PMID: 14694147]
42. Choi Y-J, Yoon Y, Lee K-Y, Hien TT, Kang KW, Kim K-C, et al. Uric acid induces endothelial dysfunction by vascular insulin resistance associated with the impairment of nitric oxide synthesis. FASEB J. 2014;28:3197–204. [PMID: 24652948]
43. Zharikov S, Krotova K, Hu H, Baylis C, Johnson RJ, Block ER, et al. Uric acid decreases NO production and increases arginase activity in cultured pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2008;295:C1183–C90. [PMID: 18784379]
44. Puddu P, Puddu GM, Cravero E, Vizioli L, Muscari A. The relationships among hyperuricemia, endothelial dysfunction, and cardiovascular diseases: molecular mechanisms and clinical implications. J Cardiol. 2012;59:235–42. [PMID: 22398104]
45. Ruggiero C, Cherubini A, Ble A, Bos AJ, Maggio M, Dixit VD, et al. Uric acid and inflammatory markers. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1174–81. [PMID: 16611671]
46. Lyngdoh T, Marques-Vidal P, Paccaud F, Preisig M, Waeber G, Bochud M, et al. Elevated serum uric acid is associated with high circulating inflammatory cytokines in the population-based Colaus study. PloS ONE. 2011;6:e19901. [PMID: 21625475]
47. Yu M-A, Sánchez-Lozada LG, Johnson RJ, Kang D-H. Oxidative stress with an activation of the renin–angiotensin system in human vascular endothelial cells as a novel mechanism of uric acid-induced endothelial dysfunction. J Hypertens. 2010;28:1234–42. [PMID: 20486275]
48. Perlstein TS, Gumieniak O, Hopkins PN, Murphey LJ, Brown NJ, Williams GH, et al. Uric acid and the state of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in humans. Kidney Int. 2004;66:1465–70. [PMID: 15458439]
49. Zhu Y, Hu Y, Huang T, Zhang Y, Li Z, Luo C, et al. High uric acid directly inhibits insulin signalling and induces insulin resistance. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2014;447:707–14. [PMID: 24769205]
50. Krishnan E, Pandya BJ, Chung L, Hariri A, Dabbous O. Hyperuricemia in young adults and risk of insulin resistance, prediabetes, and diabetes: a 15-year follow-up study. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;176:108–16. [PMID: 22753829]
51. Cirillo P, Sato W, Reungjui S, Heinig M, Gersch M, Sautin Y, et al. Uric acid, the metabolic syndrome, and renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:S165–S8. [PMID: 17130256]
52. Desideri G, Castaldo G, Lombardi A, Mussap M, Testa A, Pontremoli R, et al. Is it time to revise the normal range of serum uric acid levels? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2014;18:1295–306. [PMID: 24867507]
53. diabetes R-Gpmot. The Australian National Diabetes Strategy 2016–20; 2016 https://static.diabetesaustralia.com.au/s/fileassets/diabetes-australia/5d3298b2-abf3-487e-9d5e-0558566fc242.pdf .
54. Kahn SE, Hull RL, Utzschneider KM. Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Nature. 2006;444:840–6. [PMID: 17167471]
55. Stamler J, Vaccaro O, Neaton JD, Wentworth D, Group MRFITR. Diabetes, other risk factors, and 12-yr cardiovascular mortality for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Diabetes Care. 1993;16:434–44. [PMID: 8432214]
56. Steiner G. Dyslipoproteinemias in diabetes. Clin Investig Med. 1995;18:282–7.
57. Mazzone T, Chait A, Plutzky J. Cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes mellitus: insights from mechanistic studies. Lancet. 2008;371:1800–9. [PMID: 18502305]
58. Piga R, Naito Y, Kokura S, Handa O, Yoshikawa T. Short-term high glucose exposure induces monocyte-endothelial cells adhesion and transmigration by increasing VCAM-1 and MCP-1 expression in human aortic endothelial cells. Atherosclerosis. 2007;193:328–34. [PMID: 17097661]
59. Ohgami N, Miyazaki A, Sakai M, Kuniyasu A, Nakayama H, Horiuchi S. Advanced glycation end products (AGE) inhibit scavenger receptor class B type I-mediated reverse cholesterol transport: a new crossroad of AGE to cholesterol metabolism. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2003;10:1–6. [PMID: 12621157]
60. Yu X-H, Fu Y-C, Zhang D-W, Yin K, Tang C-K. Foam cells in atherosclerosis. Clin Chim Acta. 2013;424:245–52. [PMID: 23782937]
61. Miyazaki A, Nakayama H, Horiuchi S. Scavenger receptors that recognize advanced glycation end products. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2002;12:258–62. [PMID: 12242049]
62. Lillioja S, Mott DM, Spraul M, Ferraro R, Foley JE, Ravussin E, et al. Insulin resistance and insulin secretory dysfunction as precursors of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Prospective studies of Pima Indians. New Engl J Med. 1993;329:1988–92. [PMID: 8247074]
63. Taniguchi CM, Emanuelli B, Kahn CR. Critical nodes in signalling pathways: insights into insulin action. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2006;7:85. [PMID: 16493415]
64. Saltiel AR, Kahn CR. Insulin signalling and the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. Nature. 2001;414:799. [PMID: 11742412]
65. Kershaw EE, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:2548–56. [PMID: 15181022]
66. Van Gaal LF, Mertens IL, Christophe E. Mechanisms linking obesity with cardiovascular disease. Nature. 2006;444:875. [PMID: 17167476]
67. Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, Hara K, Ueki K, Tobe K. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Investig. 2006;116:1784–92. [PMID: 16823476]
68. Murea M, Ma L, Freedman BI. Genetic and environmental factors associated with type 2 diabetes and diabetic vascular complications. Rev Diabet Stud. 2012;9:6. [PMID: 22972441]
69. Gil-Campos M, Cañete R, Gil A. Adiponectin, the missing link in insulin resistance and obesity. Clin Nutr. 2004;23:963–74. [PMID: 15380884]
70. Hattori S, Hattori Y, Kasai K. Hypoadiponectinemia is caused by chronic blockade of nitric oxide synthesis in rats. Metabolism. 2005;54:482–7. [PMID: 15798955]
71. Di Gregorio GB, Yao-Borengasser A, Rasouli N, Varma V, Lu T, Miles LM, et al. Expression of CD68 and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 genes in human adipose and muscle tissues: association with cytokine expression, insulin resistance, and reduction by pioglitazone. Diabetes. 2005;54:2305–13. [PMID: 16046295]
72. Kolak M, Westerbacka J, Velagapudi VR, Wågsäter D, Yetukuri L, Makkonen J, et al. Adipose tissue inflammation and increased ceramide content characterize subjects with high liver fat content independent of obesity. Diabetes. 2007;56:1960–8. [PMID: 17620421]
73. Genest JJ. Dyslipidemia and coronary artery disease. Can J Cardiol. 2000;16:3A–4A. [PMID: 10653923]
74. Ninomiya JK, L’italien G, Criqui MH, Whyte JL, Gamst A, Chen RS. Association of the metabolic syndrome with history of myocardial infarction and stroke in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Circulation. 2004;109:42–6. [PMID: 14676144]
75. Ross R. Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease. New Engl J Med. 1999;340:115–26. [PMID: 9887164]
76. Leitinger N. Oxidized phospholipids as modulators of inflammation in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2003;14:421–30. [PMID: 14501580]
77. Dai G, Kaazempur-Mofrad MR, Natarajan S, Zhang Y, Vaughn S, Blackman BR, et al. Distinct endothelial phenotypes evoked by arterial waveforms derived from atherosclerosis-susceptible and-resistant regions of human vasculature. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2004;101:14871–6. [PMID: 15466704]
78. Goldberg IJ. Diabetic dyslipidemia: causes and consequences. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:965–71. [PMID: 11238470]
79. van Diepen JA, Berbée JF, Havekes LM, Rensen PC. Interactions between inflammation and lipid metabolism: relevance for efficacy of anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2013;228:306–15. [PMID: 23518178]
80. Steinberg D. The LDL modification hypothesis of atherogenesis: an update. J Lipid Res. 2009;50 Suppl:S376–81. [PMID: 19011257]
81. Garcia-Gonzalez V, Delgado-Coello B, Perez-Torres A, Mas-Oliva J. Reality of a vaccine in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis. Arch Med Res. 2015;46:427–37. [PMID: 26100340]
82. Boisvert WA. Modulation of atherogenesis by chemokines. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2004;14:161–5. [PMID: 15177267]
83. Rodríguez-Rodríguez E, López-Plaza B, López-Sobaler A, Ortega R. Prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad en adultos españoles. Nutr Hosp. 2011;26:355–63. [PMID: 21666974]
84. Yeh ET, Willerson JT. Coming of age of C-reactive protein: using inflammation markers in cardiology. Circulation. 2003;107:370–1. [PMID: 12551854]
85. Rost NS, Wolf PA, Kase CS, Kelly-Hayes M, Silbershatz H, Massaro JM, et al. Plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and risk of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack The Framingham Study. Stroke. 2001;32:2575–9. [PMID: 11692019]
86. Mazidi M, Toth PP, Banach M. C-reactive protein is associated with prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus in US adults. Angiology. 2018;69:438–42. [PMID: 28914081]
87. Tonet AC, Karnikowski M, Moraes CF, Gomes L, Karnikowski MGdO, Cordova C, et al. Association between the-174 G/C promoter polymorphism of the interleukin-6 gene and cardiovascular disease risk factors in Brazilian older women. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2008;41:47–53. [PMID: 17994165]
88. Ruggiero C, Cherubini A, Miller E, Maggio M, Najjar SS, Lauretani F, et al. Usefulness of uric acid to predict changes in C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 in 3-year period in Italians aged 21 to 98 years. Am J Cardiol. 2007;100:115–21. [PMID: 17599452]
89. Ramos AM, Pellanda LC, Gus I, Portal VL. Inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Arquivos Bras Cardiol. 2009;92:233–40. [DOI: 10.1590/S0066-782X2009000300012]
90. Förstermann U, Münzel T. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase in vascular disease. Circulation. 2006;113:1708–14. [PMID: 16585403]
91. Barylski M, Kowalczyk E, Banach M, Ciecwierz J, Pawlicki L, Kowalski J. Plasma total antioxidant activity in comparison with plasma NO and VEGF levels in patients with metabolic syndrome. Angiology. 2009;60:87–92. [PMID: 19017672]
92. Reilly MP, Rohatgi A, McMahon K, Wolfe ML, Pinto SC, Rhodes T, et al. Plasma cytokines, metabolic syndrome, and atherosclerosis in humans. J Investig Med. 2007;55:26–35. [PMID: 17441409]
93. Wagner DD, Burger PC. Platelets in inflammation and thrombosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2003;23:2131–7. [PMID: 14500287]
94. Massberg S, Brand K, Grüner S, Page S, Müller E, Müller I, et al. A critical role of platelet adhesion in the initiation of atherosclerotic lesion formation. J Exp Med. 2002;196:887–96. [PMID: 12370251]
95. Eriksson EE, Xie X, Werr J, Thoren P, Lindbom L. Importance of primary capture and l-selectin–dependent secondary capture in leukocyte accumulation in inflammation and atherosclerosis in vivo. J Exp Med. 2001;194:205–18. [PMID: 11457895]
96. Frenette PS, Johnson RC, Hynes RO, Wagner DD. Platelets roll on stimulated endothelium in vivo: an interaction mediated by endothelial P-selectin. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1995;92:7450–4. [PMID: 7543682]
97. Freedman JE. Oxidative stress and platelets. Arterioscler thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:s11–s6. [PMID: 18174453]
98. Brass LF. Thrombin and platelet activation. Chest. 2003;124:18S–25S. [PMID: 12970120]
99. Radomski M, Palmer R, Moncada S. Endogenous nitric oxide inhibits human platelet adhesion to vascular endothelium. Lancet. 1987;330:1057–8. [DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91481-4]
100. De Graaf J, Banga J, Moncada S, Palmer R, de Groot P, Sixma J. Nitric oxide functions as an inhibitor of platelet adhesion under flow conditions. Circulation. 1992;85:2284–90. [PMID: 1591842]
101. Higashi Y, Noma K, Yoshizumi M, Kihara Y. Endothelial function and oxidative stress in cardiovascular diseases. Circulation J. 2009;73:411–8. [DOI: 10.1253/circj.CJ-08-1102]
102. Mulè G, Calcaterra I, Nardi E, Cerasola G, Cottone S. Metabolic syndrome in hypertensive patients: an unholy alliance. World J Cardiol. 2014;6:890. [PMID: 25276291]
103. Carethers M, Blanchette PL. Pathophysiology of hypertension. Clin Geriatr Med. 1989;5:657–74. [PMID: 2691057]
104. Furukawa S, Fujita T, Shimabukuro M, Iwaki M, Yamada Y, Nakajima Y, et al. Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J Clin Investig. 2017;114:1752–61. [DOI: 10.1172/JCI21625]
105. Sesso HD, Buring JE, Rifai N, Blake GJ, Gaziano JM, Ridker PM. C-reactive protein and the risk of developing hypertension. JAMA. 2003;290:2945–51. [PMID: 14665655]
106. Zinman B, Hanley AJ, Harris SB, Kwan J, Fantus IG. Circulating tumor necrosis factor-α concentrations in a native Canadian population with high rates of type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:272–8. [PMID: 9920095]
107. Dörffel Y, Lätsch C, Stuhlmüller B, Schreiber S, Scholze S, Burmester GR, et al. Preactivated peripheral blood monocytes in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1999;34:113–7. [PMID: 10406833]
108. Masaoki T, Norio I, Katsutoshi Y, Masako Y, Remiko O, Hiroshi O. Interleukin-6 as a mediator responsible for inflammation-induced increase in plasma angiotensinogen. Biochemical Pharmacol. 1993;45:201–6. [DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(93)90393-B]
109. Formiguera X, Cantón A. Obesity: epidemiology and clinical aspects. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2004;18:1125–46. [PMID: 15561643]
110. Guh DP, Zhang W, Bansback N, Amarsi Z, Birmingham CL, Anis AH. The incidence of co-morbidities related to obesity and overweight: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:88. [PMID: 19320986]
111. Coelho M, Oliveira T, Fernandes R. Biochemistry of adipose tissue: an endocrine organ. Arch Med Sci. 2013;9:191–200. [PMID: 23671428]
112. World Health Organization. Prevention of blindness from diabetes mellitus: report of a WHO consultation in Geneva, Switzerland, 9-11 November 2005. World Health Organization; 2006.
113. Williams CM, Lovegrove JA, Griffin BA. Dietary patterns and cardiovascular disease. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2013;72:407–11. [DOI: 10.1017/S0029665113002048]
114. Forum NO. State of the Nation’s Waistline report 2015; 2015.
115. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ôunpuu S, Bautista L, Franzosi MG, Commerford P, et al. Obesity and the risk of myocardial infarction in 27,000 participants from 52 countries: a case-control study. Lancet. 2005;366:1640–9. [PMID: 16271645]
116. De Koning L, Merchant AT, Pogue J, Anand SS. Waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as predictors of cardiovascular events: meta-regression analysis of prospective studies. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:850–6. [PMID: 17403720]
117. Collaboration PS. Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900,000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet. 2009;373:1083–96. [DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4]
118. Thompson PD, Buchner D, Piña IL, Balady GJ, Williams MA, Marcus BH, et al. Exercise and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology (Subcommittee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention) and the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism (Subcommittee on Physical Activity). Circulation. 2003;107:3109–16. [PMID: 12821592]
119. Active SAS. Start active, stay active: a report on physical activity from the four home countries’ Chief Medical Officers. United Kingdom: Active SAS; 2011.
120. Barnes J, Behrens TK, Benden ME, Biddle S, Bond D, Brassard P, et al. Letter to the editor: standardized use of the terms “sedentary” and “sedentary behaviours”. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012;37:540–2. [DOI: 10.1139/h2012-024]
121. Pate RR, O’neill JR, Lobelo F. The evolving definition of “sedentary”. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2008;36:173–8. [PMID: 18815485]
122. Clark B, Sugiyama T. Prevalence, trends, and correlates of sedentary behavior. In: Physical activity, exercise, sedentary behavior and health. Springer, Tokyo; 2015. p. 79–90. [DOI: 10.1007/978-4-431-55333-5_8]
123. Piercy KL, Troiano RP. Physical activity guidelines for Americans from the US Department of Health and Human Services: cardiovascular benefits and recommendations. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 2018;11:e005263.
124. Hill JO, Wyatt HR, Reed GW, Peters JC. Obesity and the environment: where do we go from here? Science. 2003;299:853–5. [PMID: 12574618]
125. Booth FW, Roberts CK, Laye MJ. Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Compr Physiol. 2012;2:1143–211. [PMID: 23798298]
126. Thosar SS, Johnson BD, Johnston JD, Wallace JP. Sitting and endothelial dysfunction: the role of shear stress. Med Sci Monit. 2012;18:RA173. [PMID: 23197245]
127. Johnson BD, Mather KJ, Wallace JP. Mechanotransduction of shear in the endothelium: basic studies and clinical implications. Vasc Med. 2011;16:365–77. [PMID: 22003002]
128. Singh U, Jialal I. Oxidative stress and atherosclerosis. Pathophysiology. 2006;13:129–42. [PMID: 16757157]
129. Nestel P, Clifton P, Colquhoun D, Noakes M, Mori TA, Sullivan D, et al. Indications for omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Heart Lung Circ. 2015;24:769–79. [PMID: 25936871]
130. Collins CBT, Rollo M. Dietary patterns and cardiovascular disease outcomes. University of Newcastle (for the National Heart Foundation of Australia); 2017.
131. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:659–69. [PMID: 19364995]
132. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, et al. Executive summary: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics-2016 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133:447. [PMID: 26811276]
133. Mazidi M, Shivappa N, Wirth MD, Hebert JR, Mikhailidis DP, Kengne AP, et al. Dietary inflammatory index and cardiometabolic risk in US adults. Atherosclerosis. 2018;276:23–7. [PMID: 30015256]
134. Westman EC, Feinman RD, Mavropoulos JC, Vernon MC, Volek JS, Wortman JA, et al. Low-carbohydrate nutrition and metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:276–84. [PMID: 17684196]
135. Westman EC, Yancy WS, Mavropoulos JC, Marquart M, McDuffie JR. The effect of a low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet versus a low-glycemic index diet on glycemic control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutr Metab. 2008;5:1. [DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-5-1]
136. Haimoto H, Iwata M, Wakai K, Umegaki H. Long-term effects of a diet loosely restricting carbohydrates on HbA1c levels, BMI and tapering of sulfonylureas in type 2 diabetes: a 2-year follow-up study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2008;79:350–6. [PMID: 17980451]
137. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2016 update a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;133:e38–e48. [PMID: 26673558]
138. Salas-Salvadó J, Bulló M, Estruch R, Ros E, Covas M-I, Ibarrola-Jurado N, et al. Prevention of Diabetes With Mediterranean DietsA Subgroup Analysis of a Randomized Trial. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:1–10. [PMID: 24573661]
139. WHO. Physical activity fact sheet. WHO; 2016. http://www.whoint/mediacentre/factsheets/fs385/en/ (2016). Accessed 29 Jun 2016.
140. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome: a multiplex cardiovascular risk factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92:399–404. [PMID: 17284640]
141. Stone NJ, Saxon D. Approach to treatment of the patient with metabolic syndrome: lifestyle therapy. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:15–21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.05.010]
142. Zheng S, Lubin B, Au R, Murabito JM, Benjamin EJ, Shwartz M. Advantages of continuous-valued risk scores for predicting long-term costs: the framingham coronary heart disease 10-year risk score. Adv Geriatr Med Res. 2019;1.
143. Ertek S, Banach M. Editorial (Thematic issue: the changing face of metabolic syndrome and its components in the light of current knowledge). Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2014;12:549–52. [PMID: 23627974]

MeSH Term

Chemicals