OpenLB
Open Library of Bioscience
Advanced Search
Psychological research
Jun, 2021;85 (4): 1473-1487.

Enhancing task-demands disrupts learning but enhances transfer gains in short-term task-switching training.

Katrina Sabah, Thomas Dolk, Nachshon Meiran, Gesine Dreisbach
Author Information
  1. Katrina Sabah: Department for Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, Universitätstraße 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany. Katrina.Sabah@psychologie.uni-regensburg.de.
  2. Thomas Dolk: Department for Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, Universitätstraße 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
  3. Nachshon Meiran: Ben Gurion Univsersity of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel.
  4. Gesine Dreisbach: Department for Experimental Psychology, Regensburg University, Universitätstraße 31, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
PMID: 32303843 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-020-01335-y

Abstract

Content variability was previously suggested to promote stronger learning effects in cognitive training whereas less variability incurred transfer costs (Sabah et al. Psychological Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1006-7 , 2018). Here, we expanded these findings by additionally examining the role of learners' control in short-term task-switching training by comparing voluntary task-switching to a yoked control forced task-switching condition. To this end, four training conditions were compared: (1) forced fixed content, (2) voluntary fixed content, (3) forced varied content, and (3) voluntary varied content. To further enhance task demands, bivalent stimuli were used during training. Participants completed baseline assessment commencing with task-switching and verbal fluency blocks, followed by seven training blocks and last by task-switching (near transfer) and verbal fluency (far transfer) blocks, respectively. For the baseline and transfer task-switching blocks, we used the exact same baseline and first transfer block from Sabah et al. (Psychological Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1006-7 , 2018), employing univalent stimuli and alternating-runs task sequence. Our results pointed again to the contribution of content variability to task-switching performance. No indications for far transfer were observed. Allowing for learners' control was not found to produce additional transfer gains beyond content variability. A between-study comparison suggests that enhanced task demands, by means of bivalency, promoted higher transfer gains in the current study when compared to Sabah et al. (Psychological Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1006-7 , 2018). Taken together, the current results provide further evidence to the beneficial impact of variability on training outcomes. The lack of modulatory effect for learners' control is discussed in relation to possible methodological limitations.

References

  1. Ackerman, P. L. (1987). Individual differences in skill learning: An integration of psychometric and information processing perspectives. Psychological Bulletin, 102(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.3 . [DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.3]
  2. Al-Hashimi, O., Anguera, J. A., Rolle, C., Janowich, J., Kong, E., Gazzaley, A., et al. (2013). Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults. Nature, 501(7465), 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12486 . [DOI: 10.1038/nature12486]
  3. Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89(4), 369–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.89.4.369 . [DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.89.4.369]
  4. Arrington, C. M., & Logan, G. D. (2004). The cost of a voluntary task switch. Psychological Science, 15(9), 610–615. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00728.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00728.x]
  5. Arrington, C. M., & Logan, G. D. (2005). Voluntary Task-switching: Chasing the elusive homunculus. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition., 31(4), 683–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.31.4.683 . [DOI: 10.1037/0278-7393.31.4.683]
  6. Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41(1), 63–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x]
  7. Bell, B. S., & Kozlowski, S. W. J. (2008). Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(2), 296–316. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296 . [DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296]
  8. Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
  9. Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). Making things hard on yourself, but in a good way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning. In M. A. Gernsbacher, R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, & J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions to society (pp. 56–64). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
  10. Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: A dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(2), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.010 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2011.12.010]
  11. Bürki, C. N., Ludwig, C., Chicherio, C., & de Ribaupierre, A. (2014). Individual differences in cognitive plasticity: an investigation of training curves in younger and older adults. Psychological Research, 78(6), 821–835. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3 . [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3]
  12. Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2012a). Self-controlled learning: The importance of protecting perceptions of competence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458 . [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00458]
  13. Chiviacowsky, S., Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., & Campos, T. (2012b). Motor learning benefits of self-controlled practice in persons with Parkinson’s disease. Gait and Posture, 35(4), 601–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2011.12.003 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2011.12.003]
  14. Colzato, L. S., van Leeuwen, P. J. A., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., & Hommel, B. (2010). DOOM’d to switch: Superior cognitive fl exibility in players of first person shooter games. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00008 . [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00008]
  15. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. [DOI: 10.1037/a0012801]
  16. Dougherty, M. R., Hamovitz, T., & Tidwell, J. W. (2016). Reevaluating the effectiveness of n-back training on transfer through the Bayesian lens: Support for the null. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 23(1), 306–316. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0865-9 . [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-015-0865-9]
  17. Dreisbach, G., & Fröber, K. (2019). How to be flexible (or not): Modulation of the flexibility-stability-balance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 3–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418800030 . [DOI: 10.1177/0963721418800030]
  18. Eisenberger, R. (1992). Learned industriousness. Psychological Review, 99(2), 248–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.99.2.248 . [DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.99.2.248]
  19. Ericsson, K. A. (2006). The influence of experience and deliberate practice on the development of superior expert performance. In K. Ericsson, N. Charness, P. Feltovich, & R. Hoffman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge handbooks in psychology. (pp. 683–704). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816796.038 [DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511816796.038]
  20. Ericsson, K. A. (2008). Deliberate practice and acquisition of expert performance: A general overview. Academic Emergency Medicine, 15(11), 988–994. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x]
  21. Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363 . [DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363]
  22. Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont: Brooks/Cole.
  23. Fröber, K., & Dreisbach, G. (2017). Keep flexible—keep switching! The influence of forced task switching on voluntary task switching. Cognition, 162, 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2017.01.024 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2017.01.024]
  24. Gardner, H. (1987). The theory of multiple intelligences. Annals of Dyslexia, 37(1), 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648057 . [DOI: 10.1007/BF02648057]
  25. Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423(6939), 534–537. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01647 . [DOI: 10.1038/nature01647]
  26. Healy, A. F., Kole, J. A., & Bourne, L. E. (2014). Training principles to advance expertise. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00131 . [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00131]
  27. Inzlicht, M., Schmeichel, B. J., & Macrae, C. N. (2014). Why self-control seems (but may not be) limited. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(3), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.009]
  28. Inzlicht, M., Shenhav, A., & Olivola, C. Y. (2018). The effort paradox: Effort is both costly and valued. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(4), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.007 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.007]
  29. Jersild, A. T. (1927). Mental set and shift. Archives of Psychology [Whole No. 89].
  30. Jolles, D. D., Van Buchem, M. A., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., & Crone, E. A. (2012). Practice effects in the developing brain: A pilot study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, S180–S191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.001 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.001]
  31. Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training. Developmental Science, 12(6), 978–990. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00846.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00846.x]
  32. Karbach, J., Mang, S., & Kray, J. (2010). Transfer of task-switching training in older age: The role of verbal processes. Psychology and Aging, 25(3), 677–683. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019845 . [DOI: 10.1037/a0019845]
  33. Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work. Psychological Science, 25(11), 2027–2037. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614548725 . [DOI: 10.1177/0956797614548725]
  34. Kiesel, A., Steinhauser, M., Wendt, M., Falkenstein, M., Jost, K., Philipp, A. M., et al. (2010). Control and interference in Task-switching-a review. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 849–874. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019842 . [DOI: 10.1037/a0019842]
  35. Kinzie, M. B. (1990). Requirements and benefits of effective interactive instruction: Learner control, self-regulation, and continuing motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 38(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02298244 . [DOI: 10.1007/BF02298244]
  36. Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 665–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020198 . [DOI: 10.1037/a0020198]
  37. Kray, J., & Fehér, B. (2017). Age differences in the transfer and maintenance of practice-induced improvements in Task-switching: The impact of working-memory and inhibition demands. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 410. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00410 . [DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00410]
  38. León, J., Núñez, J. L., & Liew, J. (2014). Self-determination and STEM education: Effects of autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning on high school math achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 43, 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.017 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2015.08.017]
  39. Lewthwaite, R., & Wulf, G. (2012). Motor learning through a motivational lens. In N. J. Hodges & A. Mark Williams (Eds.), Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 173–191). London: Routledge.
  40. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6 . [DOI: 10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6]
  41. Mayr, U., & Bell, T. (2006). On how to be unpredictable: Evidence from the voluntary task-switching paradigm. Psychological Science, 17, 774–780. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01781.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01781.x]
  42. Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer”: Evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(4), 512–534. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616635612 . [DOI: 10.1177/1745691616635612]
  43. Minear, M., & Shah, P. (2008). Training and transfer effects in task-switching. Memory and Cognition, 36(8), 1470–1483. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.336.8.1470 . [DOI: 10.3758/MC.336.8.1470]
  44. Monsell, S. (2003). Task-switching review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(3), 134–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7 . [DOI: 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00028-7]
  45. Morrison, A. B., & Chein, J. M. (2011). Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 18(1), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-010-0034-0 . [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-010-0034-0]
  46. Muraven, M., Shmueli, D., & Burkley, E. (2006). Conserving self-control strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(3), 524–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.524 . [DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.3.524]
  47. Navon, D., & Gopher, D. (1979). On the economy of the human-processing system. Psychological Review, 86(3), 214–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.86.3.214 . [DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.86.3.214]
  48. Olfers, K. J. F., & Band, G. P. H. (2018). Game-based training of flexibility and attention improves task-switch performance: near and far transfer of cognitive training in an EEG study. Psychological Research, 82(1), 186–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-017-0933-z . [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-017-0933-z]
  49. Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Darabi, A. A. (2005). A motivational perspective on the relation between mental effort and performance: Optimizing learner involvement in instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(3), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504795 . [DOI: 10.1007/BF02504795]
  50. Piaget, J. (1980). The psychogenesis of knowledge and its epistemological significance. In M. Piattelli-Palmarini (Ed.), Language and learning. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  51. Quiñones, M. A. (1995). Pretraining context effects: training assignment as feedback. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(2), 226–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.80.2.226 . [DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.80.2.226]
  52. Ruona, W. E. A., Leimbach, M., Holton, III, E. F., & Bates, R. (2002). The relationship between learner utility reactions and predicted learning transfer among trainees. International Journal of Training and Development, 6(4), 218–228. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2419.00160 .   [DOI: 10.1111/1468-2419.00160]
  53. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 . [DOI: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020]
  54. Sabah, K., Dolk, T., Meiran, N., & Dreisbach, G. (2018). When less is more: costs and benefits of varied vs. fixed content and structure in short-term task-switching training. Psychological Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-018-1006-7 . [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-018-1006-7]
  55. Sanli, E. A., & Patterson, J. T. (2013). Learning effects of self-controlled practice scheduling for children and adults: Are the advantages different? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 116(3), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.2466/23.22.pms.116.3.741-749 . [DOI: 10.2466/23.22.pms.116.3.741-749]
  56. Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3(4), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x . [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00029.x]
  57. Schmidt, C. S. M., Schumacher, L. V., Römer, P., Leonhart, R., Beume, L., Martin, M., et al. (2017). Are semantic and phonological fluency based on the same or distinct sets of cognitive processes? Insights from factor analyses in healthy adults and stroke patients. Neuropsychologia, 99, 148–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.02.019 . [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.02.019]
  58. Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E. (2002). What is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46(2), 419–440. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2001.2813 . [DOI: 10.1006/jmla.2001.2813]
  59. Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50(2), 138–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1036274 . [DOI: 10.1080/00461520.2015.1036274]
  60. Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24(4), 1077–1096. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0 . [DOI: 10.3758/s13423-016-1217-0]
  61. Spiro, R. J., & Jehng, J.-C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds.), Cognition, education, and multimedia (pp. 163–206). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  62. Tafarodi, R. W., Milne, A. B., & Smith, A. J. (1999). The confidence of choice: Evidence for an augmentation effect on self-perceived performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(11), 1405–1416. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299259006 . [DOI: 10.1177/0146167299259006]
  63. Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., & Winocur, G. (1997). Clustering and switching as two components of verbal fluency: Evidence from younger and older healthy adults. Neuropsychology, 11(1), 138–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.11.1.138 . [DOI: 10.1037/0894-4105.11.1.138]
  64. Troyer, A. K., Moscovitch, M., Winocur, G., Alexander, M. P., & Stuss, D. (1998). Clustering and switching on verbal fluency: The effects of focal frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia, 36(6), 499–504. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00152-8 . [DOI: 10.1016/S0028-3932(97)00152-8]
  65. Vandierendonck, A., Liefooghe, B., & Verbruggen, F. (2010). Task-switching: Interplay of reconfiguration and interference control. Psychological Bulletin, 136(4), 601–626. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019791 . [DOI: 10.1037/a0019791]
  66. Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068210 . [DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068210]

Grants

  1. DR 392/9-1/Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

MeSH Term

Adult
Attention
Female
Humans
Learning
Male
Motor Skills
Photic Stimulation
Reaction Time
Transfer, Psychology
Visual Perception
Journal Article
Article has an altmetric score of 1

Word Cloud

Created with Highcharts 10.0.0transfertask-switchingtrainingcontentvariabilitycontrolblocksSabahetalPsychologicalResearchhttps://doiorg/101007/s00426-018-1006-72018learners'voluntaryforcedtaskbaselinegainslearningshort-termfixed3varieddemandsstimuliusedverbalfluencyfarresultscurrentContentpreviouslysuggestedpromotestrongereffectscognitivewhereaslessincurredcostsexpandedfindingsadditionallyexaminingrolecomparingyokedconditionendfourconditionscompared:12enhancebivalentParticipantscompletedassessmentcommencingfollowedsevenlastnearrespectivelyexactfirstblockemployingunivalentalternating-runssequencepointedcontributionperformanceindicationsobservedAllowingfoundproduceadditionalbeyondbetween-studycomparisonsuggestsenhancedmeansbivalencypromotedhigherstudycomparedTakentogetherprovideevidencebeneficialimpactoutcomeslackmodulatoryeffectdiscussedrelationpossiblemethodologicallimitationsEnhancingtask-demandsdisruptsenhances

Similar Articles

Cited By